Chemical and biological research of Clematis medicinal resources

Insights into Clematis cirrhosa L. Ethanol Extract: Cytotoxic Effects, LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS Chemical Profiling, Molecular Docking, and Acute Toxicity Study

BACKGROUND

In Jordanian traditional medicine, Clematis cirrhosa is commonly employed for the management of different diseases. Numerous investigations have documented the cytotoxic properties of different Clematis species against numerous types of cancer. Previously, we demonstrated the potential cytotoxicity of Clematis cirrhosa against HT-29 colorectal cancer cells. Extending our work, the current research aimed to explore the possible mechanisms underlying its antiproliferative activity with a plant safety evaluation.

METHODS

This study evaluates the extract's impact on the cell cycle, apoptosis, and cell migration through in vitro assays, LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS analysis, docking studies, and an acute toxicity evaluation.

RESULTS

The Clematis cirrhosa ethanol extract (CEE) induced G2/M phase cell cycle arrest (19.63%), triggered significant apoptosis (41.99%), and inhibited cell migration/wound healing by 28.15%. Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis revealed increased expression of the proapoptotic markers BAX (6.03-fold) and caspase-3 (6.59-fold), along with the reduced expression of the antiapoptotic BCL-2, in CEE-treated cells. Moreover, CEE significantly restrained angiogenesis by reducing VEGF mRNA expression by 63.9%. High-resolution LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS studies identified 26 metabolites, including phenolic compounds, fatty acids, and triterpenoids. Docking studies suggested that manghaslin had the highest binding affinity for VEGFR-2, followed by calceolarioside B, quercetin 7-O-rhamnopyranoside, luteolin, and quercetin-3,7-O-diglucoside. On the other hand, salvadoraside exhibited the highest binding affinity for the inhibition of caspase-3, followed by quercetin-3,7-O-diglucoside, kaempferol-3,7-O-α-L-dirhamnoside, manghaslin, and tectoridin, supporting the observed apoptotic effects. Interestingly, the outcomes further indicate that a single oral administration of up to 5000 mg/kg CEE is safe for consumption.

CONCLUSIONS

These outcomes point to the potential of Clematis cirrhosa as a promising candidate for further exploration in cancer therapy.

Phylogenomic analysis and dynamic evolution of chloroplast genomes of Clematis nannophylla

Clematis nannophylla is a perennial shrub of Clematis with ecological, ornamental, and medicinal value, distributed in the arid and semi-arid areas of northwest China. This study successfully determined the chloroplast (cp) genome of C. nannophylla, reconstructing a phylogenetic tree of Clematis. This cp genome is 159,801 bp in length and has a typical tetrad structure, including a large single-copy, a small single-copy, and a pair of reverse repeats (IRa and IRb). It contains 133 unique genes, including 89 protein-coding, 36 tRNA, and 8 rRNA genes. Additionally, 66 simple repeat sequences, 50 dispersed repeats, and 24 tandem repeats were found; many of the dispersed and tandem repeats were between 20-30 bp and 10-20 bp, respectively, and the abundant repeats were located in the large single copy region. The cp genome was relatively conserved, especially in the IR region, where no inversion or rearrangement was observed, further revealing that the coding regions were more conserved than the noncoding regions. Phylogenetic analysis showed that C. nannophylla is more closely related to C. fruticosa and C. songorica. Our analysis provides reference data for molecular marker development, phylogenetic analysis, population studies, and cp genome processes to better utilise C. nannophylla.

DNA barcoding of terrestrial invasive plant species in Southwest Michigan

Because of the detrimental effects of terrestrial invasive plant species (TIPS) on native species, ecosystems, public health, and the economy, many countries have been actively looking for strategies to prevent the introduction and minimize the spread of TIPS. Fast and accurate detection of TIPS is essential to achieving these goals. Conventionally, invasive species monitoring has relied on morphological attributes. Recently, DNA-based species identification (i.e., DNA barcoding) has become more attractive. To investigate whether DNA barcoding can aid in the detection and management of TIPS, we visited multiple nature areas in Southwest Michigan and collected a small piece of leaf tissue from 91 representative terrestrial plant species, most of which are invasive. We extracted DNA from the leaf samples, amplified four genomic loci (ITS, rbcL, matK, and trnH-psbA) with PCR, and then purified and sequenced the PCR products. After careful examination of the sequencing data, we were able to identify reliable DNA barcode regions for most species and had an average PCR-and-sequencing success rate of 87.9%. We found that the species discrimination rate of a DNA barcode region is inversely related to the ease of PCR amplification and sequencing. Compared with rbcL and matK, ITS and trnH-psbA have better species discrimination rates (80.6% and 63.2%, respectively). When ITS and trnH-psbA are simultaneously used, the species discrimination rate increases to 97.1%. The high species/genus/family discrimination rates of DNA barcoding indicate that DNA barcoding can be successfully employed in TIPS identification. Further increases in the number of DNA barcode regions show little or no additional increases in the species discrimination rate, suggesting that dual-barcode approaches (e.g., ITS + trnH-psbA) might be the efficient and cost-effective method in DNA-based TIPS identification. Close inspection of nucleotide sequences at the four DNA barcode regions among related species demonstrates that DNA barcoding is especially useful in identifying TIPS that are morphologically similar to other species.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Clematis terniflora Leaf on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Acute Lung Injury

For centuries, natural products are regarded as vital medicines for human survival. Clematis terniflora var. mandshurica (Rupr.) Ohwi is an ingredient of the herbal medicine, Wei Ling Xian, which has been used in Chinese medicine to alleviate pain, fever, and inflammation. In particular, C. terniflora leaves have been used to cure various inflammatory diseases, including tonsillitis, cholelithiasis, and conjunctivitis. Based on these properties, this study aimed to scientifically investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of an ethanol extract of leaves of C. terniflora (EELCT) using activated macrophages that play central roles in inflammatory response. In this study, EELCT inhibited the essential inflammatory mediators, such as nitric oxide, cyclooxygenase-2, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin- (IL-) 6, IL-1β, and inducible nitric oxide synthase, by suppressing the nuclear factor-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase activation in macrophages. Acute lung injury (ALI) is a fatal respiratory disease accompanied by serious inflammation. With high mortality rate, the disease has no effective treatments. Therefore, new therapeutic agents must be developed for ALI. We expected that EELCT can be a promising therapeutic agent for ALI by reducing inflammatory responses and evaluated its action in a lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced ALI model. EELCT alleviated histological changes, immune cell infiltration, inflammatory mediator production, and protein-rich pulmonary edema during ALI. Collectively, our results may explain the traditional usage of C. terniflora in inflammatory diseases and suggest the promising potential of EELCT as therapeutic candidate for ALI.

Targeted Sequencing Approach and Its Clinical Applications for the Molecular Diagnosis of Human Diseases

The outbreak of COVID-19 has positively impacted the NGS market recently. Targeted sequencing (TS) has become an important routine technique in both clinical and research settings, with advantages including high confidence and accuracy, a reasonable turnaround time, relatively low cost, and fewer data burdens with the level of bioinformatics or computational demand. Since there are no clear consensus guidelines on the wide range of next-generation sequencing (NGS) platforms and techniques, there is a vital need for researchers and clinicians to develop efficient approaches, especially for the molecular diagnosis of diseases in the emergency of the disease and the global pandemic outbreak of COVID-19. In this review, we aim to summarize different methods of TS, demonstrate parameters for TS assay designs, illustrate different TS panels, discuss their limitations, and present the challenges of TS concerning their clinical application for the molecular diagnosis of human diseases.

Evaluating Potentials of Species Rich Taxonomic Groups in Cosmetics and Dermatology: Clustering and Dispersion of Skin Efficacy of Asteraceae and Ranunculales Plants on the Species Phylogenetic Tree

BACKGROUND

The medicinal properties of plants can be predicted by virtue of phylogenetic methods, which nevertheless have not been utilized to explore the regularity of skin-related bioactivities of ethnomedicinal plants. We aim to investigate the distribution of skin efficacy of Asteraceae and Ranunculales plants on the species-level Tree of Life.

METHODS

The clinical efficacy data of 551 ethnomedicinal species belonging to Ranunculales, as well as 579 ethnomedicinal species of Asteraceae, were systematically collected and collated; these therapeutic data fell into 15 categories, including skin disease/cosmeceutical. The large phylogenetic tree of all China angiosperm species was used to detect the phylogenetic signals of ethnomedicinal plants by calculating the D statistic, phylogenetic diversity (PD), net relatedness index (NRI), and nearest taxon index (NTI). Of all Chinese ethnomedicinal plants of Ranunculales and Asteraceae, 339 (61.5% of all ethnomedicinal species) and 382 (66.0% of all) are used for skin problems. In Ranunculales, a clustered structure was suggested by the NRI value for skin uses. In Asteraceae, the skin utility was not clustered; Artemisia, Aster, Cremanthodium, Ligularia, and Saussurea are the most used Asteraceae genera for skin issues.

RESULTS

The clustering structure was identified in Artemisia, and the skin efficacy in other genera was of overdispersion (NRI < 0). NTI values and D statistics largely agree with NRI. When compared with PD values of different therapeutic categories, the PD value of the skin category was relatively high in Cremanthodium, Ranunculales, Asteraceae, and Artemisia, suggesting the enormous efficacy space in the new taxa of these taxonomic groups.

CONCLUSION

By resolving the distribution of therapeutic effects of Ranunculales/Asteraceae taxa, the importance of phylogenetic methods in mining botanical resources with skin utilities is validated.

Complete chloroplast genome characterization and phylogenetic analysis of Clematis mandshurica (Ranunculaceae)

The complete chloroplast genome sequence of Clematis mandshurica Ruprecht (1867), a specie of the Ranunculaceae family, and its phylogenetic relationships with other species have been reported in this study. The complete chloroplast genome of C. mandshurica is 159,563 bp in length, including a large single-copy (LSC) region of 79,360 bp, a small single-copy (SSC) region of 18,121 bp, and a pair of identical inverted repeat regions (IRs) of 31,041 bp. The genome encodes a total of 132 genes, including 90 protein-coding genes, 34 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes, and eight ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes. The phylogenetic analysis reveals that C. mandshurica was found to be closest to Clematis taeguensis. The complete chloroplast genome of C. mandshurica contributes to a better understanding of phylogenetic relationships among Clematis species.

The Application of Electrochemical Oscillation Methods for Identification of Traditional Chinese Medicine Materials

Electrochemical oscillation reflects the overall characteristics of the system under test in terms of redox activity. It has proven to be advantageous in analyzing and processing complex components of herbal systems, such as polysaccharides and proteins. Therefore, it is widely used in the quantitative or qualitative tests of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) for identification and quality control. Electrochemical oscillation has several advantages such as high sensitivity, stability and micro sample requirement. Compared with other traditional methods, the interaction of multi-component in the TCMs was taken into account, which provides new ideas for the search of TCMs. Here, we presented a brief introduction on the progress on the topic, which promoted the development of electrochemical oscillation and the standardization of TCMs in the last twenty years. Electrochemical oscillation method is cheap, sensitive, fast, stable and convenient for the identification and quality control of TCMs. Reaction systems and the visualization of the fingerprints can be improved in the future.

The Role of Natural Products in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Current Knowledge of Basic In Vitro and In Vivo Research

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disorder affecting a vast variety of the population. The onset of RA as well as the development of systematic immunization is affected by both genetic and environmental risk factors. This review aims to point out the role of natural products in the management of RA, focusing on the reports of basic research (in vitro and animal studies) emphasizing the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties considered in the field of RA. A systematic screening of the relevant literature was carried out on PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus with the following criteria: publication date, 2015-2020; language, English; study design, in vitro or animal models; and the investigation of one or several natural products in the context of RA, including, when available, the molecular mechanisms implicated. A total of 211 papers were initially obtained and screened. In vitro and animal studies referring to 20 natural products and 15 pure compounds were ultimately included in this review. The outcomes of this work provide an overview of the methods employed in basic research over the past five years, with emphasis on the limitations presented, while demonstrating the potential benefits of utilizing natural products in the management of RA as supported by in vitro and animal studies.

Physiological and Gene Expression Changes of Clematis crassifolia and Clematis cadmia in Response to Heat Stress

Clematis is a superior perennial ornamental vine known for varied colors and shapes of its flowers. Clematis crassifolia is sensitive to high temperature, whereas Clematis cadmia has a certain temperature adaptability. Here we analyzed the potential regulatory mechanisms of C. crassifolia and C. cadmia in response to heat stress by studying the photosynthesis, antioxidant parameters, amino acids, and gene expression patterns under three temperature treatments. Heat stress caused the fading of leaves; decreased net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, superoxide dismutase, and catalase activity; increased 13 kinds of amino acids content; and up-regulated the expression of seven genes, including C194329_G3, C194434_G1, and C188817_g1, etc., in C. crassifolia plants. Under the treatments of heat stress, the leaf tips of C. cadmia were wilted, and the net photosynthetic rate and soluble protein content decreased, with the increase of 12 amino acids content and the expression of c194329_g3, c194434_g1, and c195983_g1. Our results showed that C. crassifolia and C. cadmia had different physiological and molecular response mechanisms to heat stress during the ecological adaptation.

Experimental pretreatment with YES-10®, a plant extract rich in scutellarin and chlorogenic acid, protects hippocampal neurons from ischemia/reperfusion injury via antioxidant role

Erigeron annuus (L.) PERS. (EALP) and Clematis mandshurica RUPR. (CMR) have been used in traditional remedies due to their medicinal effects. Recently, we reported that pretreatment with 200 mg/kg of YES-10^® (a combination of extracts from leaves of EALP and CMR) displayed neuroprotective effects against brain ischemia and reperfusion injury. The present study analyzed the major ingredients of YES-10^® and investigated whether neuroprotection from YES-10^® was dependent upon antioxidant effects in the cornu ammonis 1 (CA1) field in the gerbil hippocampus, after transient forebrain ischemia for 5 min. YES-10^® was demonstrated to predominantly contain scutellarin and chlorogenic acid. Pretreatment with YES-10^® significantly increased protein levels and the immunoreactivity of copper/zinc-superoxide dismutase (SOD1) and manganese-superoxide dismutase (SOD2) was in the pyramidal neurons of the hippocampal CA1 field when these were examined prior to transient ischemia induction. The increased SODs in CA1 pyramidal neurons following YES-10^® treatment were maintained after ischemic injury. In this case, the CA1 pyramidal neurons were protected from ischemia-reperfusion injury. Oxidative stress was significantly attenuated in the CA1 pyramidal neurons, and this was determined by 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal immunohistochemistry and dihydroethidium histofluorescence staining. Taken together, the results indicated that YES-10^® significantly attenuated transient ischemia-induced oxidative stress and may be utilized for developing a protective agent against ischemic insults.

Diversity of Ginsenoside Profiles Produced by Various Processing Technologies

Ginseng is a traditional medicinal herb commonly consumed world-wide owing to its unique family of saponins called ginsenosides. The absorption and bioavailability of ginsenosides mainly depend on an individual's gastrointestinal bioconversion abilities. There is a need to improve ginseng processing to predictably increase the pharmacologically active of ginsenosides. Various types of ginseng, such as fresh, white, steamed, acid-processed, and fermented ginsengs, are available. The various ginseng processing methods produce a range ginsenoside compositions with diverse pharmacological properties. This review is intended to summarize the properties of the ginsenosides found in different Panax species as well as the different processing methods. The sugar moiety attached to the C-3, C-6, or C-20 deglycosylated to produce minor ginsenosides, such as Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd→Rg3, F2, Rh2; Re, Rf→Rg1, Rg2, F1, Rh1. The malonyl-Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd were demalonylated into ginsenoside Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd by dehydration. Dehydration also produces minor ginsenosides such as Rg3→Rk1, Rg5, Rz1; Rh2→Rk2, Rh3; Rh1→Rh4, Rk3; Rg2→Rg6, F4; Rs3→Rs4, Rs5; Rf→Rg9, Rg10. Acetylation of several ginsenosides may generate acetylated ginsenosides Rg5, Rk1, Rh4, Rk3, Rs4, Rs5, Rs6, and Rs7. Acid processing methods produces Rh1→Rk3, Rh4; Rh2→Rk1, Rg5; Rg3→Rk2, Rh3; Re, Rf, Rg2→F1, Rh1, Rf2, Rf3, Rg6, F4, Rg9. Alkaline produces Rh16, Rh3, Rh1, F4, Rk1, ginsenoslaloside-I, 20(S)-ginsenoside-Rh1-60-acetate, 20(R)-ginsenoside Rh19, zingibroside-R1 through hydrolysis, hydration addition reactions, and dehydration. Moreover, biological processing of ginseng generates the minor ginsenosides of Rg3, F2, Rh2, CK, Rh1, Mc, compound O, compound Y through hydrolysis reactions, and synthetic ginsenosides Rd12 and Ia are produced through glycosylation. This review with respect to the properties of particular ginsenosides could serve to increase the utilization of ginseng in agricultural products, food, dietary supplements, health supplements, and medicines, and may also spur future development of novel highly functional ginseng products through a combination of various processing methods.

Pharmaceutical resource discovery from traditional medicinal plants: Pharmacophylogeny and pharmacophylogenomics

The worldwide botanical and medicinal culture diversity are astonishing and constitute a Pierian spring for innovative drug R&D. Here, the latest awareness and the perspectives of pharmacophylogeny and pharmacophylogenomics, as well as their expanding utility in botanical drug R&D, are systematically summarized and highlighted. Chemotaxonomy is based on the fact that closely related plants contain the same or similar chemical profiles. Correspondingly, it is better to combine morphological characters, DNA markers and chemical markers in the inference of medicinal plant phylogeny. Medicinal plants within the same phylogenetic groups may have the same or similar therapeutic effects, thus forming the core of pharmacophylogeny. Here we systematically review and comment on the versatile applications of pharmacophylogeny in (1) looking for domestic resources of imported drugs, (2) expanding medicinal plant resources, (3) quality control, identification and expansion of herbal medicines, (4) predicting the chemical constituents or active ingredients of herbal medicine and assisting in the identification and determination of chemical constituents, (5) the search for new drugs sorting out, and (6) summarizing and improving herbal medicine experiences, etc. Such studies should be enhanced within the context of deeper investigations of molecular biology and genomics of traditional medicinal plants, phytometabolites and metabolomics, and ethnomedicine-based pharmacological activity, thus enabling the sustainable conservation and utilization of traditional medicinal resources.

Jasmonate responsive transcription factor WsMYC2 regulates the biosynthesis of triterpenoid withanolides and phytosterol via key pathway genes in Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal

Functional characterization of WsMYC2 via artificial microRNA mediated silencing and transient over-expression displayed significant regulatory role vis-à-vis withanolides and stigmasterol biosyntheses in Withania somnifera. Further, metabolic intensification corroborated well with higher expression levels of putative pathway genes. Additionally, copious expression of WsMYC2 in response to exogenous elicitors resulted in enhanced withanolides production. Withania somnifera, a high value multipurpose medicinal plant, is a rich reservoir of structurally diverse and biologically active triterpenoids known as withanolides. W. somnifera has been extensively pursued vis-à-vis pharmacological and chemical studies. Nonetheless, there exists fragmentary knowledge regarding the metabolic pathway and the regulatory aspects of withanolides biosynthesis. Against this backdrop, a jasmonate-responsive MYC2 transcription factor was identified and functionally characterized from W. somnifera. In planta transient over-expression of WsMYC2 showed significant enhancement of mRNA transcript levels which corroborated well with the enhanced content of withanolides and stigmasterol. Further, a comparative analysis of expression levels of some of the genes of triterpenoid pathway viz. WsCAS, WsCYP85A, WsCYP90B and WsCYP710A in corroboration with the over-expression and silencing of WsMYC2 suggested its positive influence on their regulation. These corroboratory approaches suggest that WsMYC2 has cascading effect on over-expression of multiple pathway genes leading to the increased triterpenoid biosynthesis in infiltered plants. Further, the functional validation of WsMYC2 was carried out by artificial micro-RNA mediated silencing. It resulted in significant reduction of withanolides and stigmasterol levels, indicative of crucial role of WsMYC2 in the regulation of their biosyntheses. Taken together, these non-complementary approaches provided unambiguous understanding of the regulatory role of WsMYC2 in context to withanolides and stigmasterol biosyntheses. Furthermore, the upstream promoter of WsMYC2 presented several cis-regulatory elements primarily related to phytohormone responsiveness. WsMYC2 displayed inducible nature in response to MeJA. It had substantial influence on the higher expression of WsMYC2 which was in consonance with enhanced accumulation of withanolides.

Transcriptomic analysis in Anemone flaccida rhizomes reveals ancillary pathway for triterpene saponins biosynthesis and differential responsiveness to phytohormones

Anemone flaccida Fr. Schmidt is a perennial medicinal herb that contains pentacyclic triterpenoid saponins as the major bioactive constituents. In China, the rhizomes are used as treatments for a variety of ailments including arthritis. However, yields of the saponins are low, and little is known about the plant's genetic background or phytohormonal responsiveness. Using one-quarter of the 454 pyrosequencing information from the Roche GS FLX Titanium platform, we performed a transcriptomic analysis to identify 157 genes putatively encoding 26 enzymes involved in the synthesis of the bioactive compounds. It was revealed that there are two biosynthetic pathways of triterpene saponins in A. flaccida. One pathway depends on β-amyrin synthase and is similar to that found in other plants. The second, subsidiary ("backburner") pathway is catalyzed by camelliol C synthase and yields β-amyrin as minor byproduct. Both pathways used cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenases (CYPs) and family 1 uridine diphosphate glycosyltransferases (UGTs) to modify the triterpenoid backbone. The expression of CYPs and UGTs were quite different in roots treated with the phytohormones methyl jasmonate, salicylic acid and indole-3-acetic acid. This study provides the first large-scale transcriptional dataset for the biosynthetic pathways of triterpene saponins and their phytohormonal responsiveness in the genus Anemone.

Characterization of new microsatellite markers based on the transcriptome sequencing of Clematis finetiana

Background

Clematis is the biggest genus in the family Ranunculaceae with about 300 species. Clematis is also a globally important commercial group of flowers, especially in the United States and European countries. Their petals with different colors and shapes make the genus the “Queen of the Vines”. However, the genomic information and phylogeny of Clematis based on existing molecular studies are limited. In this paper, new microsatellites (SSR) markers were identified from the transcriptome data of C. finetiana obtained using the Illumina paired-end sequencing technology.

Results

Sequences on a total of 71,900 high-quality unigenes with the mean length of 865 bp were produced in this study. There were 6192unigenes annotated and classified into 49 functional sub-groups in three main ontology categories in GO (Gen Ontology) database,14,022 unigenes mapped to COGs (Clusters of Orthologous Groups) database and classified into 25 functional categories, and 21,494 unigenes obtained and divided into 128 pathways of KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes) Database. A total of 7532 SSRs were discovered from 6337 unigenes. We randomly tested 210 primer pairs, of which 52 primer pairs were able to generate specific products, and 19 possessed polymorphism in the 13 wild populations of six species from Clematis, which were used as a test material.

Conclusions

The dataset of C. finetiana transcriptome and the identified new SSR markers will promote genetic research and breeding effort in Clematis.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s41065-018-0060-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Removal of Pb, Zn, and Cd from contaminated soil by new washing agent from plant material

Soil washing is an effective approach to remove soil heavy metals, and the washing agent is generally regarded as one of the primary factors in the process, but there is still a lack of efficient and eco-friendly agents for this technique. Here, we showed that four plant washing agents-from water extracts of Coriaria nepalensis (CN), Clematis brevicaudata (CB), Pistacia weinmannifolia (PW), and Ricinus communis (RC)-could be feasible agents for the removal of soil lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), and cadmium (Cd). The metal removal efficiencies of the agents increased with their concentrations from 20 to 80 g L^-1, decreased with the increasing solution pH, and presented different trends with the reaction time increasing. CN among the four agents had the highest removal efficiencies of soil Pb (62.02%) and Zn (29.18%) but owned the relatively low Cd removal efficiencies (21.59%). The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed that the abilities of plant washing agents for the removal of soil heavy metals may result from bioactive substances with specific functional groups such as -COOH, -NH₂, and -OH. Our study provided CN as the best washing agents for the remediation of contaminated soil by heavy metals.

Anemone medicinal plants: ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and biology

The Ranunculaceae genus Anemone (order Ranunculales), comprising more than 150 species, mostly herbs, has long been used in folk medicine and worldwide ethnomedicine. Various medicinal compounds have been found in Anemone plants, especially triterpenoid saponins, some of which have shown anti-cancer activities. Some Anemone compounds and extracts display immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities. More than 50 species have ethnopharmacological uses, which provide clues for modern drug discovery. Anemone compounds exert anticancer and other bioactivities via multiple pathways. However, a comprehensive review of the Anemone medicinal resources is lacking. We here summarize the ethnomedical knowledge and recent progress on the chemical and pharmacological diversity of Anemone medicinal plants, as well as the emerging molecular mechanisms and functions of these medicinal compounds. The phylogenetic relationships of Anemone species were reconstructed based on nuclear ITS and chloroplast markers. The molecular phylogeny is largely congruent with the morphology-based classification. Commonly used medicinal herbs are distributed in each subgenus and section, and chemical and biological studies of more unexplored taxa are warranted. Gene expression profiling and relevant "omics" platforms could reveal differential effects of phytometabolites. Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics should be highlighted in deciphering novel therapeutic mechanisms and utilities of Anemone phytometabolites.

Mining chemodiversity from biodiversity: pharmacophylogeny of medicinal plants of Ranunculaceae

This paper reports a pharmacophylogenetic study of a medicinal plant family, Ranunculaceae, investigating the correlations between their phylogeny, chemical constituents, and pharmaceutical properties. Phytochemical, ethnopharmacological, and pharmacological data were integrated in the context of the systematics and molecular phylogeny of the Ranunculaceae. The chemical components of this family included several representative metabolic groups: benzylisoquinoline alkaloids, ranunculin, triterpenoid saponin, and diterpene alkaloids, among others. Ranunculin and magnoflorine were found to coexist in some genera. The pharmacophylogenetic analysis, integrated with therapeutic information, agreed with the taxonomy proposed previously, in which the family Ranunculaceae was divided into five sub-families: Ranunculoideae, Thalictroideae, Coptidoideae, Hydrastidoideae, and Glaucidioideae. It was plausible to organize the sub-family Ranunculoideae into ten tribes. The chemical constituents and therapeutic efficacy of each taxonomic group were reviewed, revealing the underlying connections between phylogeny, chemical diversity, and clinical use, which should facilitate the conservation and sustainable utilization of the pharmaceutical resources derived from the Ranunculaceae.

Genomics and Evolution in Traditional Medicinal Plants: Road to a Healthier Life

Medicinal plants have long been utilized in traditional medicine and ethnomedicine worldwide. This review presents a glimpse of the current status of and future trends in medicinal plant genomics, evolution, and phylogeny. These dynamic fields are at the intersection of phytochemistry and plant biology and are concerned with the evolution mechanisms and systematics of medicinal plant genomes, origin and evolution of the plant genotype and metabolic phenotype, interaction between medicinal plant genomes and their environment, the correlation between genomic diversity and metabolite diversity, and so on. Use of the emerging high-end genomic technologies can be expanded from crop plants to traditional medicinal plants, in order to expedite medicinal plant breeding and transform them into living factories of medicinal compounds. The utility of molecular phylogeny and phylogenomics in predicting chemodiversity and bioprospecting is also highlighted within the context of natural-product-based drug discovery and development. Representative case studies of medicinal plant genome, phylogeny, and evolution are summarized to exemplify the expansion of knowledge pedigree and the paradigm shift to the omics-based approaches, which update our awareness about plant genome evolution and enable the molecular breeding of medicinal plants and the sustainable utilization of plant pharmaceutical resources.

Aurantiamide acetate suppresses the growth of malignant gliomas in vitro and in vivo by inhibiting autophagic flux

We aim to investigate the effect of aurantiamide acetate isolated from the aerial parts of Clematis terniflora DC against gliomas. Human malignant glioma U87 and U251 cells were incubated with different concentrations (0-100 μM) of aurantiamide acetate. Aurantiamide acetate greatly decreased the cell viability in a dose- and time-dependent manner. It induced moderate mitochondrial fragmentation and the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. No significant difference was found in the alternation of other intracellular organelles, although F-actin structure was slightly disturbed. Apparent ultrastructure alternation with increased autophagosome and autolysosome accumulation was observed in aurantiamide acetate-treated cells. The expression of LC3-II was greatly up-regulated in cells exposed to aurantiamide acetate (P < 0.05 compared with control). The cytoplasmic accumulation of autophagosomes and autolysosomes induced by aurantiamide acetate treatment was confirmed by fluorescent reporter protein labelling. Administration of chloroquine (CQ), which inhibits the fusion step of autophagosomes, further increased the accumulation of autophagosomes in the cytoplasm of U87 cells. Autophagy inhibition by 3-methyladenine, Bafilomycin A1 or CQ had no influence on aurantiamide acetate-induced cytotoxicity, whereas autophagy stimulator rapamycin significantly suppressed aurantiamide acetate-induced cell death. The anti-tumour effects of aurantiamide acetate were further evaluated in tumour-bearing nude mice. Intratumoural injection of aurantiamide acetate obviously suppressed tumour growth, and increased number of autophagic vacuoles was observed in tumour tissues of animals receiving aurantiamide acetate. Our findings suggest that aurantiamide acetate may suppress the growth of malignant gliomas by blocking autophagic flux.

Biomolecular evidence of anti-inflammatory effects by Clematis mandshurica Ruprecht root extract in rodent cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Clematis mandshurica Ruprecht root is widely used in Asia as an analgesic and anti-inflammatory agent. This research investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of Clematis mandshurica Ruprecht root extract (CRE) using RAW 264.7 macrophage cells and carrageenan- (CA-) induced rat paw edema.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Production of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in the culture supernatant, mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS and COX-2, protein expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in the extract were assayed. In addition, the effect of CRE on acute inflammation in vivo was observed using CA-induced rat hind paw edema assay. The changes on the histopathology and histomorphometry of hind paw skins-dorsum and ventrum pedis were observed using CA-treated rats.

RESULTS

Treatment with CRE (0.25, 0.5, and 1 mg/mL) resulted in inhibited levels of protein expression of lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced iNOS, COX-2, NF-κB, and MAPKs (ERK, JNK, and p38) as well as production of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, NO, and PGE2 induced by LPS. Consistent with these results, CRE reduced the LPS-induced expressions of these cytokines, iNOS and COX-2 at the mRNA levels in a dose-dependent manner. In particular, results of the CA-induced rat hind paw edema assay showed an anti-edema effect of CRE. In addition, treatment with CRE resulted in dose-dependent inhibition of CA-induced increases of skin thickness, mast cell degranulation, and infiltrated inflammatory, TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS, and COX-2-positive cells in both dorsum and ventrum pedis skin, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that CRE exhibits anti-inflammatory activities via decreasing production of pro-inflammatory mediators through suppression of the pathways of NF-κB and MAPKs in LPS-induced macrophage cells. In addition, results of the CA-induced rat hind paw edema assay show an anti-edema effect of CRE. Our findings also support the traditional use of CRE in the inflammatory symptoms of rheumatic arthritis and acute icteric hepatitis. Thus, CRE may have therapeutic potential for a variety of inflammation-mediated diseases and may be developed into potent anti-inflammatory drugs.