"Internet Addiction": a Conceptual Minefield

Psychometric Validation of the Compulsive Internet Use Scale in Spanish Adolescents

Despite problematic internet use being especially high among adolescents, there are no screening instruments in Spain specifically for adolescents that would facilitate early detection of this problem. The main goal of this study was to validate the Compulsive Internet Use Scale (CIUS) in the adolescent Spanish population as well as to analyze the discriminative capacity of CIUS based on sociodemographic characteristics, grade point average, and other addictive behaviors. Data were obtained from the ESTUDES, a representative survey of addictive behaviors of Spanish adolescents. The sample consisted of a total of 34,308 adolescents aged between 14 and 18 years old (Mage = 15.70; SD = 1.19; 51.7% females). Results indicated that the CIUS fit a unidimensional structure, exhibited measurement invariance with respect to sex and age, and demonstrated excellent reliability (ω = .94). Past-month tobacco, alcohol, and cannabis use, as well as past-year gambling and gaming, were related to CIUS scores. A standardized screening instrument that provides valid, reliable information on young people's use of the Internet in Spain is a critical requirement for successful early detection and intervention in this population.

Internet addiction and health-related quality of life in adolescents: The mediating role of sleep disturbance

BACKGROUND

Internet addiction (IA) has emerged as a recognized risk factor associated with impaired health-related quality of life (HRQOL) in adolescents. However, the role of sleep disturbance in this association remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the association of IA with HRQOL in Chinese adolescents and to evaluate the potential mediating role of sleep disturbance.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted among adolescents attending six randomly selected middle schools in Guangzhou, China. Adolescents self-reported their internet use using the Young Diagnostic Questionnaire. HRQOL and sleep disturbance were assessed by the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory version 4.0 and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, respectively. Multivariate linear regression analysis was employed to assess the association between IA and HRQOL. Baron and Kenny's causal steps method was used to examine the possible mediating role of sleep disturbance.

RESULTS

Of the 6473 adolescents included, 23.5% had maladaptive internet use (MIU) and 16.6% had pathological internet use (PIU). Compared to adolescents with adaptive internet use (AIU), those with IA had significantly lower scores across all HRQOL dimensions and summary scales. Mediation analysis revealed that sleep disturbance was a significant mediator. Specifically, sleep disturbance mediated 34.55% of the effects of MIU and 34.06% of the effects of PIU on the HRQOL total scale score , respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

IA was associated with poorer HRQOL, indicating the needs of preventing IA in Chinese adolescents. Additionally, our findings underscored the importance of enhancing sleep quality to mitigate the adverse impact of IA on adolescents' well-being.

Investigating mental representations of psychoactive substance use and other potentially addictive behaviors using a data driven network-based clustering method

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The aim of the present study was to examine the mental representations of the use of different substances and other potentially addictive behaviors in order to explore meaningful similarities and differences that may contribute to a better understanding of behavioral addictions' representations and diagnostic criteria.

METHODS

The authors mapped the mental and emotional representations of 661 participants (70.5% women; Mage = 35.2 years, SD = 11.7) to the concept "your most disturbing excessive activity" using free-word associations combined with a network-based clustering method.

RESULTS

The network analyses identified four distinct mental representations, three implicating dominantly negative (Guilt/Shame/Relief, Addiction/Health, and Procrastination/Boredom) and one dominantly positive emotion (Stress/Relaxation). The distribution of Addiction/Health and Procrastination/Boredom representations were different across substance use and problem behaviors, indicating meaningful differences in the underlying cognitive evaluation processes. The Addiction/Health representation was more frequent for substances, while for other addictive behaviors, the Procrastination/Boredom representation was more frequent, and its frequency increased with the self-reported intensity of the behavior. Guilt/Shame/Relief was equally common for both substances and behaviors, but importantly, for substances its' likelihood increased with the intensity of use.

CONCLUSION

The common part of representations for substance use and other potentially addictive behaviors supports the scientific viewpoint, that real addictions can exist even in the absence of psychoactive drugs. Based on the results, a novel proposition is posited, that a more appropriate indicator of tolerance for problem behaviors might be the perceived amount of time wasted on the activity rather than the actual time spent.

Sleep quality and internet addiction among junior college students; The mediating role of depression: A cross-sectional study

This study investigated the mediating effect of depression on the relationship between sleep quality and internet addiction in Taiwanese junior college students. We recruited 590 (53 males, 537 females) students, aged from 15 to 22 years from a day school of a junior college in northern Taiwan. We used a cross-sectional study design. The Chen Internet Addiction Scale, Chinese Version of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, and Adolescent Depression Scale were used as measurement instruments. Using the IBM SPSS Statistics 26 software package, descriptive statistics, reliability analysis, correlation analysis, and inferential statistics were used to evaluate the participants' demographics and relationships between the study variables. The mediation model was tested using the Z test. The prevalence of internet addiction in junior college students was 21.2 %. The indirect effects were determined using Sobel's test and bootstrapping confirming that depression completely mediated the relationship between sleep quality and internet addiction. The findings would help to build holistic and comprehensive prevention and intervention programs that should be developed to reduce the addictive behaviors of adolescents.

Problematic online anime (animation) use: It's relationship with viewers' satisfaction with life, emotions, and emotion regulation

Although there are numerous studies on problematic technology use, such as problematic video game use and problematic smartphone use, little is known about problematic online anime use. However, problematic online anime use warrants further examination because of anime's popularity and commercial importance. Furthermore, how emotion strategies and emotions (such as pleasure and arousal) invoked upon watching the online anime are associated with problematic online anime use is not examined in previous studies. To bridge these literature gaps and to contribute to the fields of emotion regulation and media psychology, this study adopts the emotion regulation theory and considers the relationships among viewers' satisfaction with life, feelings of pleasure and arousal arising from watching a particular online anime, cognitive emotion regulation strategies activated because of anime viewing, and potential to exhibit problematic behavior related to online anime use, which is operationalized as viewers' inability to control or reduce watching online anime. Data was collected from viewers who have watched the popular romantic comedy anime Kaguya-sama: Love Is War online via a major online discussion board in Taiwan through the purposive sampling method. Data analysis on the 190 online questionnaire returns (mostly from males and students) through the partial least squares analysis reveals that the emotion regulation theory can be used to examine viewers' perceptions of anime. In the online anime context, the emotion regulation strategy most likely to be invoked is positive refocusing (mean value of 3.68, measured through a 5-point Likert scale) which is in line with how people typically watch anime for immersion and escapism. Satisfaction with life demonstrates its robustness and flexibility in invoking the positive refocusing (path coefficient = 0.17) and refocus on planning (path coefficient = 0.13) strategies. It also lowers the adoption of the maladaptive strategy of catastrophizing (path coefficient = -0.18). While catastrophizing strategy (path coefficient = 0.31) and arousal (path coefficient = 0.24) add to problematic online anime use, pleasure (path coefficient = -0.27) lowers problematic online anime use. Thus, when viewers keep magnifying the severity of a bad situation they are in while watching online anime, instead of making them better, could lead them to the undesirable outcome of problematic online anime use. Although this study has provided several interesting insights, this study has only considered Kaguya-sama: Love Is War and used survey respondents' perception of their extent of problematic online anime use. To increase generalization, future studies could consider other types of anime and alternative means to measure problematic use, such as frequency of online anime viewing.

The role of academic procrastination on Internet addiction among Thai university students: A cross-sectional study

Background

The internet has become an inevitable tool for information-seeking and communication in today's modern era. However, ironically it has driven humankind to become more dependent, leading to addiction. Internet addiction has increased exponentially at all levels of society, especially university students, impeding their physical, psychological, and social well-being.

Objective

This study aimed to examine the relationship between academic procrastination and internet addiction and determine the influence of academic procrastination on internet addiction among Thai university students.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 470 participants selected through multi-stage cluster random sampling from a university in eastern Thailand. The data collection was conducted between 29 November 2022 and 27 January 2023. The data were gathered using a demographic data form, an internet addiction test, and a procrastination assessment scale for the students' questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation coefficient, and simple linear regression were employed for data analysis.

Results

The results revealed that academic procrastination (M = 49.68, SD = 12.61) and internet addiction (M = 65.26, SD = 5.60) were at a moderate level. A positive correlation was identified between academic procrastination and internet addiction (r = 0.33, p <0.01), indicating a low relationship. Academic procrastination also had a significant predictive power on internet addiction, accounting for 11.3% of the variance (R2 adjusted = 0.113, F (1, 468) = 59.583, p <0.001).

Conclusion

The findings indicated the significant role of academic procrastination on internet addiction. Therefore, it is crucial that nurses should formulate interventions by considering this factor and emphasize self-regulatory and time-management skills and practical ways to limit internet dependence. Furthermore, the findings suggest that nurses could assess the procrastination level among students, devise prevention strategies, and organize awareness campaigns to instill information about rational internet use that aids in mitigating the risks and preventing them from getting addicted.

Prevalence of problematic Internet use and problematic gaming in Spanish adolescents

Epidemiological studies on problematic Internet use and problematic gaming conducted so far have mainly been carried out with unrepresentative and self-selected convenience samples, resulting in unreliable prevalence rates. This study estimates the prevalence of problematic Internet use and problematic gaming in a large sample of Spanish adolescents (N = 41,507) and identifies risk and protective factors for these risky behaviours. Data were collected online using the Adolescent Problem Internet Use Scale and the Adolescent Gaming Addiction Scale. Using a cut-off approach with measurement instruments inspired by the DSM-5 framework, we found a prevalence of 33% for problematic Internet use and 3.1% for problematic gaming. With a more conservative approach inspired by the ICD-11 framework, prevalence rates decreased to 2.98% for problematic Internet use and 1.8% for problematic gaming. Female gender, higher parents' education, elevated Internet connection time, reporting being online after midnight and using the mobile phone in class predicted problematic Internet use; whereas male gender, "living situation" where families do not have a traditional structure or stable environment, elevated Internet connection time and reporting using the mobile phone in class predicted problematic gaming. A cut-off approach involving scales that recycle substance use criteria (as in the DSM-5) over-pathologize Internet use and gaming behaviours. In contrast, the ICD-11 approach seems to provide more realistic and reliable prevalence rates.

Neurobiological risk factors for problematic social media use as a specific form of Internet addiction: A narrative review

Problematic social media use (PSMU) is a behavioral addiction, a specific form of problematic Internet use associated with the uncontrolled use of social networks. It is typical mostly for modern adolescents and young adults, which are the first generations fully grown up in the era of total digitalization of society. The modern biopsychosocial model of the formation of behavioral addictions, postulating the impact of a large number of biological, psychological, and social factors on addictive behavior formation, may be quite applicable to PSMU. In this narrative review, we discussed neurobiological risk factors for Internet addiction with a focus on current evidence on the association between PSMU and structural/ functional characteristics of the brain and autonomic nervous system, neurochemical correlations, and genetic features. A review of the literature shows that the vast majority of the mentioned neurobiological studies were focused on computer games addiction and generalized Internet addiction (without taking into account the consumed content). Even though a certain number of neuroimaging studies have been conducted for PSMU, there is practically no research on neuropeptide and genetic associations for PSMU to date. This fact points to the extremely high relevance of such studies.

The association between online learning, parents' marital status, and internet addiction among adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic period: A cross-lagged panel network approach

INTRODUCTION

Previous research has identified the association between online learning and Internet addiction (IA) and the role of family factors in it. However, few studies have treated IA as a multidimensional mechanism and explored the underlying linkage of online learning, IA, and parental marital status with a cross-lagged network approach. The study aimed to examine the relationship between online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, Internet addiction (IA), and parental marital status among Chinese adolescents.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 2356 adolescents who completed the Internet Addiction Test twice over a four-month period. Four symptom networks and two cross-lagged panel networks were performed.

RESULTS

The results showed that adolescents from divorced families had a higher prevalence of IA (27 %) compared to those from non-divorced families (17 %). The strongest cross-lagged association was found between "spending more time online" and "preferring the excitement online". In the divorced group, "school grades suffering" had the highest influence, while in the non-divorced group, "anticipation" had the highest influence.

CONCLUSION

This study highlights the relationship between online learning, IA, and parental divorce and suggests that long-term online learning may contribute to IA, and parental divorce may exacerbate problematic Internet use and increase IA levels.

Longitudinal relationship between problematic internet use with loneliness during and after COVID-19 social restrictions: Short title: Internet use and loneliness

Two, three-month long longitudinal studies examined the temporal relationships between problematic internet use (PIU), internet usage, and loneliness ratings, during and after lockdown restrictions. Experiment 1 examined 32, 18-51 year old participants, over a three-month period of lockdown restrictions. Experiment 2 studied 41, 18-51 year old participants, over a three-month period following the lifting of lockdown restrictions. Participants completed the internet addiction test, UCLA loneliness scale, and answered questioned about their online usage, at two time points. All cross-sectional analyses revealed a positive relationship between PIU and loneliness. However, there was no association between online use and loneliness. Longitudinal relationships between PIU and loneliness differed during and after lockdown restrictions. During a period of lockdown, there were both positive associations between earlier PIU and subsequent loneliness, and between earlier loneliness and subsequent PIU. However, following the easing of lockdown restrictions, only the temporal relationship between earlier internet addiction and later loneliness was significant.

Unpacking the relation between children's use of digital technologies and children's well-being: A scoping review

Over the last decade, a substantial number of studies have addressed children's use of technologies and their impact on well-being. Nonetheless, there is still a lack of clarity on the operationalisation of technology use, well-being, and the relation between the two. This scoping review intended to shed lights on Digital Technologies Use, its operationalisation, and the relation between Digital Technologies Negative Use (DTNU) and children's well-being. For the scope of the special issue we focused on negative use. Results showed two conceptualisations of DTNU: compulsive/addictive use of devices and the Internet (e.g., Internet addiction) and negative online experiences/risky behaviours (e.g., cyberbullying). Well-being in relation to DTNU was mainly studied in terms of psycho/social dimensions (e.g., depression), and a gap in cognitive well-being studies was identified. Study designs were largely quantitative, and, in most studies, well-being was considered as a predictor of DTNU. Also, research with children under 12 years was lacking. Future research on DTNU should look at: how dimensions of addiction and negative online experiences relate; provide more evidence on cognitive well-being; explore the interplay of well-being multiple components relying on integrative conceptual frameworks. The recent notion of digital well-being should also be explored considering the results of this review.

Prevalence of internet addiction in Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND AND AIM

In the last two decades, the proportion of internet users has greatly increased worldwide. Data regarding internet addiction (IA) are lacking in Africa compared to other continents. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to estimate the pooled prevalence of IA in African countries.

METHODS

We systematically sought relevant articles in PubMed/MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO and Cochrane database published before September 25, 2021. The risk of bias was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute tool, and we estimated the pooled prevalence of IA using a random-effects meta-analytic model. We followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses guidelines.

RESULTS

We included 22 studies (13,365 participants), and collected data from Egypt, Ethiopia, Morocco, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania and Tunisia between 2013 and 2021. The mean age of participants ranged from 14.8 to 26.1 years, and the most used tool for IA screening was the Young's 20-item Internet Addiction Test. The pooled prevalence rate of IA was 40.3% (95% CI: 32.2%-48.7%), with substantial heterogeneity. The pooled prevalence for Northern Africa was 44.6% (95% CI: 32.9%-56.7%), significantly higher than the prevalence in sub-Saharan Africa, which was 31.0% (95% CI: 25.2%-37.1%). The risk of bias was moderate for most studies, the certainty was very low, and we found no publication bias.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Four in every ten individuals was considered to have IA in Africa. Further research with methodological optimization seems needed, especially for IA screening tools and the representativity of some subregions.

The Yin and Yang of smartphones: an interview study of smartphone use and its effects

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to study smartphone use and its positive and negative effects and to provide recommendations for balanced use.

Design/methodology/approach

To study phone use, this paper applies the uses and gratification theory and gathered interview data from 24 participants on the participants’ frequency of use, mode of communication, people contacted and the reasons for using their phones. This paper analyzes the pros and cons of using smartphones using the Yin-Yang worldview.

Findings

This paper finds that people use their smartphones for communication, entertainment and other specific functions. Ease of communication and multitasking are the key benefits, and overuse and disconnect from the real world are the detriments in smartphone use.

Research limitations/implications

The findings can enable future researchers and practitioners to view smartphones and their effects more holistically, rather than seeing it only from the negative or the positive lens.

Practical implications

The proposed framework can help the reader to consider their daily use of smartphones and their ways of balancing their presence in the virtual and the real worlds.

Originality/value

This paper proposes the Yin-Yang framework of smartphone use and provides recommendations for effective usage.

Generalized and Specific Problematic Internet Use in Central Siberia Adolescents: A School-Based Study of Prevalence, Age–Sex Depending Content Structure, and Comorbidity with Psychosocial Problems

We aimed to assess the prevalence, content structure and, psychological comorbidity of PIU in Russian adolescents. In addition, the design of our research provided an opportunity to compare demographic and psychological patterns of different forms of PIU: generalized (PIUgen) and specific problematic video game use (PUgame), as well as problematic social media use (PUsocial). Methods: This is a one-stage cross-sectional observational study of school sampling in three major Siberian cities. A total of 4514 schoolchildren aged 12–18 (mean age 14.52 ± 1.52 years) were surveyed. The Chen Internet Addiction Scale, the Game Addiction Scale for Adolescents, and the Social Media Disorder Scale were used to identify PIU and its types. Results: The prevalence of PIUgen among adolescents in Central Siberia was 7.2%; the prevalence of PUgame was 10.4%; the prevalence of PUsocial was 8.0%. The results of structural equation modelling, as well as the correlation analysis data, suggest two possible patterns of psychosocial problems with PIU—the first one is characteristic of both PIUgen and PUsocial. The second one—which is significantly different—is characteristic of PUgame. Conclusions: Urban adolescents in Central Siberia do not differ significantly from their Asian and European peers. Our findings support the concept of rejecting the term “generalized PIU” as a single psychological construct.

A two-generation study: The transmission of attachment and young adults' depression, anxiety, and social media addiction

Social media use is on the rise among young adults (YA) and evidence suggests a positive association between social media addiction (SMA) and the psychological symptoms of depression and anxiety globally. However, the contribution of attachment and its transgenerational influence on YAs' SMA and psychological symptoms have not been widely explored. Thus, we examined how parental reports of attachment (anxiety and avoidance) can directly and through YAs' attachment predict YAs' SMA, depression and anxiety symptoms. A sample of 375 YAs (M_Age = 21.22) and their parents completed the Emotions in Close Relationships-Revised Questionnaire (Fraley et al., 2000), and the Brief Symptom Inventory (Deragotis, 1992). The SMA Scale (Sahin, 2018) was responded to by only YAs. We tested the pattern of associations in a path model. Parental attachment anxiety predicted YAs' attachment anxiety and only paternal attachment avoidance predicted YAs' attachment avoidance. YAs' attachment anxiety and avoidance predicted their depression and anxiety. However, YAs' attachment anxiety uniquely predicted their SMA. Both parents' attachment anxiety indirectly predicted the link between YAs' attachment anxiety and depression, but only paternal attachment avoidance indirectly predicted the association between YAs' attachment avoidance and depression. Furthermore, paternal attachment avoidance indirectly predicted the association between YAs' attachment avoidance and anxiety symptoms. Maternal attachment anxiety indirectly predicted SMA via YAs' attachment anxiety. While parental anxiety and paternal avoidance may impact YAs' symptoms, YAs' and maternal attachment anxiety can shape SMA. The findings about the differential role of attachment in YAs' psychological symptoms and SMA can facilitate further research and interventions.

Excessive and pathological Internet use - Risk-behavior or psychopathology?

Pathological Internet use (but only with respect to gaming) is classified as mental disorder in the ICD-11. However, there is a large group of adolescents showing excessive Internet use, which may rather be considered adolescent risk-behavior. The aim was to test whether pathological and excessive Internet use should be considered as "psychopathology" or "risk-behavior". A representative, cross-sectional sample of 11.110 students from 10 European Union countries was analyzed. Structural equation models, including the factors "risk-behavior" and "psychopathology" and the variables excessive and pathological Internet use, were tested against each other. "Risk-behavior" was operationalized by several risk-behaviors (e.g. drug abuse, truancy, etc). "Psychopathology" included measures of several mental disorders (e.g. depression, hyperactivity, etc). Excessive Internet use was assessed as the duration and frequency of Internet use. Pathological Internet use was assessed with the Young Diagnostic Questionnaire (i.e., presence of addiction criteria). Excessive Internet use loaded on "risk-behavior" (λ = 0.484, p < .001) and on "psychopathology" (λ = 0.071, p < .007). Pathological Internet use loaded on "risk-behavior" (λ = 0.333, p < .001) and on "psychopathology" (λ = 0.852, p < .001). Chi-square tests determined that the loadings of excessive Internet use (χ² (1) = 81.98, p < .001) were significantly stronger on "risk-behavior" than "psychopathology". Vice versa, pathological Internet use loaded significantly stronger on "psychopathology" (χ² (1) = 107.10, p < .001). The results indicate that pathological Internet use should rather be considered as psychopathology. Excessive Internet use on the other hand, should be classified as adolescent risk-behavior.

Anxiety sensitivity mediates relations between anxiety (but not depression) and problematic smartphone use severity, adjusting for age and sex, in Chinese adolescents early in the COVID-19 pandemic

Risk factors for problematic smartphone use (PSU) have rapidly become an important area of research due to the prevalence of smartphones and functional impairment associated with PSU. Our aim was to examine relations between established predictors of PSU (depression and anxiety) and a potential mediator of PSU (anxiety sensitivity; AS). Participants (N = 4752) from junior and senior high schools in Tianjin, China completed a web‐based survey with measures of depression, anxiety, AS, and PSU. Descriptive and inferential analyses revealed significant differences between males and females on depression severity, and between junior and senior high school students on AS and PSU severity. Results of structural equation modeling indicated that anxiety was positively associated with AS when adjusting for depression; and AS was significantly associated with greater PSU severity, adjusting for age and sex. Additionally, AS mediated relations between anxiety and PSU severity. Current findings on AS are consistent with theoretical models of problematic internet use (Interaction of Person‐Affect‐Cognition‐Execution) and previous research linking AS to other kinds of behavioral addictions (e.g., smoking, alcohol use).

The association between problematic Internet use, eating disorder behaviors, and well-being among Palestinian university students

Objectives

The current study aimed to test the correlation between problematic Internet use, eating disorder behaviors, and well-being among Palestinian university students.

Methods

To examine the relationship between the study variables, a correlational study was conducted. The geographical representation of the study sample showed that 48.1% of participants were from urban populations, 48.1% were from rural villages, and 3.8% were from internally displaced people’s camps.

Results

Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to test the relationship between problematic Internet use, eating disorder behaviors, and well-being. Results showed that problematic Internet use was negatively correlated to well-being (r = − .32, p < .01), and positively correlated to eating disorder behaviors (r = .39, p < .01). The regression analysis found that problematic Internet use contributes statistically and significantly towards explaining variance in eating disorder behaviors (B = .46, SE = .08, β = .32). Moreover, well-being contributed in a way that was statistically significant towards explaining variance in eating disorders behaviors (B = − .39, SE = .09, β = − .25).

Conclusion

The results of our study support previous studies that indicated that problematic Internet use was significantly and positively correlated with eating disorder behaviors, while it was significantly and negatively correlated to well-being among Palestinian university students. Further studies testing this relationship will be crucial in developing interventions to both reduce problematic Internet use and eating disorder behaviors and increase well-being among university students.

Risks and Opportunities for Youth in the Digital Era

Abstract. Due to continued groundbreaking digital advancements, Internet use has increased significantly. This has led to a heated debate in relation to weighing the many advantages of the technology against its potentially deleterious effects. To address such questions, experts converge on the need for greater knowledge around the way individual differences, partly shaped by an individual’s unique experiences of engaging with the medium, and partly by other real-life experiences, lead to different developmental trajectories. Consequently, the goals of the present review are to (i) broadly describe differences in digital media applications, users, and usage; (ii) introduce the Cyber-Developmental Framework (CDF), as an overarching framework for understanding individual differences in adaptive and maladaptive digital media use among youth; (iii) delineate the cyber-component of this framework in relation to users’ experience of the digital context, their activity within it, as well as their digital self-presence, which may have an impact on their digital media use; and (iv) summarize priorities and future directions through the lens of this CDF. Within this context, this review particularly emphasizes the effect of digital media use on youth’s psychological well-being. It is argued that the trajectory youth will follow in their use of the Internet is a function of the interplay between their characteristics, their proximate and distal contexts, and the particular features of the digital application(s) that the individual is engaged in. The review points to the need to conduct research focusing on better understanding the developmental and digital-context-related influences on youth’s trajectories of Internet use.

A META-ANALYSIS OF SMARTPHONE ADDICTION AND BEHAVIORAL OUTCOMES

Though smartphones have become the icon of the 21st century, they are possibly the biggest source of non-drug addiction. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to identify behavioral outcomes associated with smartphone addiction, and to evaluate their overall and individual relationships with smartphone addiction. This metaanalysis conducted a preliminary review of 6115 studies which investigated the relationships between smartphone addiction and behavioral outcomes. Fifty-three studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria developed for this study and their review identified thirteen behavioral outcomes of smartphone addiction. Meta-analytical tests confirmed a positive and significant relationship between smartphone addition and overall behavioral outcome. However, the combined effects were significantly heterogeneous and this could be attributed to the diverse nature of behavioral outcomes, dispersion of studies across the globe, and varying demographics of samples. The results showed the prevalence of the following eight behavioral outcomes: anxiety, depression, loneliness, mental health, self-control, self-regulation, stress; and withdrawal that had a significant and positive relationship with smartphone addiction, while only self-esteem had a significant and negative relationship with smartphone addiction. Finally, depression was identified as the behavioral outcome that has a significant and positive relationship with smartphone addiction irrespective of global geographic and demographic variations. This article has elaborated on smartphone addiction criteria similar to that established for researches in substance abuse and addiction. Furthermore, the article has been able to show that smartphone addiction and its problematic use has become an emerging problem with grave consequences.

Validation and Psychometric Properties of the Persian Version of the 21-Item Game Addiction Scale With a Sample of Adolescents and Young Adults

Background: Excessive gaming has become a psychological health issue for both gamers and their social environments. This observation holds true for western but also non-western countries such as Iran. The aim of the present study was to translate and validate a Persian version of the Game Addiction Scale 21 (GAS 21) using a sample of adolescents and adults. Methods: A total of 412 participants (mean age: 22.16 years; 55.3% females) took part in the study. They completed questionnaires covering sociodemographic information and gaming-related information, as well as the Persian version of the GAS 21, the GAS 7, the Internet Addiction Test, and the Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale. Results: Of the initial 21 items of the Persian version of the GAS 21, five proved redundant and were eliminated. Factors analyses yielded four factors explaining 66.35% of the variance: 1. Withdrawal; 2. Feelings of guilt and addiction; 3. Mood modification; 4. Issues of time budget. Cronbach's alphas were satisfactory (alphas > 0.87). To validate the results, scores on the translated version were compared with the well-established Young Internet Addiction test. Factors correlated positively (rs between 0.21 and 0.31) with overall score on this latter test but, against expectations, positively with the generalized self-efficacy scale. Conclusions: A Persian version of the Game Addiction Scale-21 proved to be a useful tool for assessing the risk of game addiction behavior. Further, the solution with 16 items loading on four factors appears respond to the ecological need of parsimony.

Fantasy Football (Soccer) Playing and Internet Addiction Among Online Fantasy Football Participants: A Descriptive Survey Study

The aim of the present study was to ascertain the levels of possible internet addiction within fantasy football (FF) (soccer) participants and the characteristics of the participants within this group. An online survey of questions regarding characteristics of regular FF participants and consumption of FF-related content was posted on FF internet forums (Reddit and Boards.ie). Self-selecting participants (N = 684) completed the survey containing questions on FF (time spent during weekdays/weekend on FF, gambling on FF, devices used to access FF), internet use (time spent on internet on weekdays/weekends) and an internet addiction screening questionnaire (Chen Internet Addiction Scale). Subgroup analysis was performed on each variable by nationality (Irish, UK and worldwide). Of the 684 participants, 17.5% (diagnostic) and 24.9% (screening) participants met criteria for internet addiction, above the expected level in the general population. The most frequent time spent on FF during weekdays was 30–60 min per day (32.2%) and 1–2 h per day on weekends (29.1%). Over half of participants (50.6%) gambled on FF with the majority (61.3%) gambling once per year and 74.3% of participants gambling less than €50 per year on FF. Avid FF participants demonstrated an increased likelihood of internet addiction compared prevalence rates of previous epidemiological studies among different cohorts. This may be due to FF itself and the increased consumption of FF-related content. Further large-scale nationally representative studies are required to compare regular and casual participants of FF in relation to possible internet addiction.

Rumination and negative smartphone use expectancies are associated with greater levels of problematic smartphone use: A latent class analysis

Problematic smartphone use (PSU) is related to psychopathology symptoms, such as depression and anxiety. However, less is known about how responses to and coping with psychopathology correlate with PSU. We conducted a web survey of 286 American college students, querying depression and anxiety symptoms, rumination (a coping process to avoid negative emotion), PSU, and expectancies about smartphone use for mood alleviation. We conducted latent class analysis (LCA) of PSU symptom ratings, finding support for two latent subgroups of participants, involving mild and severe PSU, especially distinguished by severity of withdrawal symptoms. Rumination and negative smartphone use expectancies (i.e., to reduce distress) positively related to the more symptomatic PSU class. Results are discussed in context of the I-PACE theoretical model of problematic internet use (PIU). We emphasize the importance of response variables in I-PACE, such as internet-related cognitive bias and coping, over background psychopathology variables in influencing PIU and PSU.

Passive objective measures in the assessment of problematic smartphone use: A systematic review

Research focussing on problematic smartphone use has predominantly employed psychometric tests which cannot capture the automatic processes and behaviours associated with problematic use. The present review aimed to identify passive objective measures that have been used or developed to assess problematic smartphone use. A systematic search was conducted using Web of Science, Scopus, PsychInfo and PubMed databases to identify passive objective measures that have been employed to assess problematic smartphone use, resulting in 18 studies meeting the inclusion criteria. Objective data that were monitored predominantly focussed on general screen usage time and checking patterns. Findings demonstrate that passive monitoring can enable smartphone usage patterns to be inferred within a relatively short timeframe and provide ecologically valid data on smartphone behaviour. Challenges and recommendations of employing passive objective measures in smartphone-based research are discussed.

Assessing the Psychometric Properties of the Internet Abusive Use Questionnaire in Italian University Students

Abstract. The risks emanating from the abusive use of the Internet are on the rise, especially among young adults causing psychological problems in their social and personal lifestyles. To date, there are only two validated measures in the Italian language to measure the risk of Internet addiction. This study served to validate an Italian version of the Internet Abusive Use Questionnaire (IAUQ-I) via a translation-back-translation process. A sample of 289 Italian university students participated in the study (73.70% females). The results of the exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis established the unidimensional factorial structure of the scale. Validity and reliability analyses indicated adequate results concerning the psychometric properties of the Italian IAUQ-I. We also found an association between IAUQ-I and self-esteem, and personality traits. This study shows that the IAUQ-I represents a valid instrument for measuring the abusive use of the Internet and could be used not only for further epidemiological studies, but also to inform practitioners working with persons addicted to technology.

Internet addiction and daytime sleepiness among professionals in India: A web-based survey

BACKGROUND

The likelihood of the relation between Internet overuse and comorbid psychiatric conditions is on the rise. However, sleep disturbances are common psychiatric symptoms associated with internet overuse. Our objective was to examine the association of Internet overuse with excessive daytime sleepiness, sleep problems in professionals from India.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This was a web-based cross-sectional study through a predesigned questionnaire which included various professional groups. The information included in the questionnaire was sociodemographic details, Young's internet addiction test (IAT) and Epworth sleepiness scale (ESS).

RESULTS

About 1.0% of total sample population had severe internet addiction whereas 13% were in the range of moderate internet addiction and the mean score on IAT was found to be 32 (standard deviation [SD] = 16.42). The mean duration of total night time sleep (5.61 ± 1.17) is significantly lower in participants with moderate and severe internet addiction (6.98 ± 1.12) compared to those with no and mild internet addiction. The mean scores of ESS were significantly higher in individuals with moderate and severe addiction (M = 10.64, SD = 4.79). We found that sleepiness while in 5 of the situations such as driving a car (χ² = 27.67; P < 0.001), sitting and reading (χ² = 13.6; P = 0.004), traveling in a car (χ² = 15.09; P = 0.002), afternoon rest time (χ² = 15.75; P = 0.001), and postlunch quiet time (χ² = 24.09; P < 0.001), predicted membership to moderate-to-severe internet addiction, even after controlling for the confounding effects of age and gender.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows an association between Internet overuse, excessive daytime sleepiness, and other sleep problems. Clinicians should be proactive and conscious in scrutinizing the patients for internet addiction and its consequences.

Correlations of Internet Addiction Severity With Reinforcement Sensitivity and Frustration Intolerance in Adolescents With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: The Moderating Effect of Medications

Background: Deviations in reinforcement sensitivity and frustration-related reactions have been proposed as components of the biopsychosocial mechanisms, which explained the high vulnerability to internet addiction (IA) among individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). There is currently limited knowledge on the relationship of IA symptoms with reinforcement sensitivity and frustration intolerance, as well as factors moderating those correlations in this population. Objective: The aims of this study were (1) to examine the associations of IA symptoms severity with reinforcement sensitivity and frustration intolerance and (2) identify the moderators of these associations among adolescents diagnosed with ADHD in Taiwan. Methods: A total of 300 adolescents aged between 11 and 18 years who had been diagnosed with ADHD participated in this study. Their levels of IA severity, reinforcement sensitivity, and frustration intolerance were assessed using the Chen Internet Addiction Scale, behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral approach system (BAS), and Frustration Discomfort Scale, respectively. The associations of IA severity with reinforcement sensitivity and frustration intolerance were examined using multiple regression analysis. Possible moderators, including medications for ADHD, were tested using the standard criteria. Results: Higher fun seeking on the BAS (p = .003) and higher frustration intolerance (p = .003) were associated with more severe IA symptoms. Receiving medication for treating ADHD moderated the association between fun seeking on the BAS and severity of IA symptoms. Conclusion: Fun seeking on the BAS and frustration intolerance should be considered as targets in prevention and intervention programs for IA among adolescents with ADHD.

Digital Traces of Behaviour Within Addiction: Response to Griffiths (2017)

Griffiths' (2017) response to the recent commentary piece by Ryding and Kaye (2017) on "Internet Addiction: A conceptual minefield" provided a useful critique and extension of some key issues. We take this opportunity to further build upon on one of these issues to provide some further insight into how the field of "internet addiction" (IA) or technological addictions more generally, may benefit from capitalising on behavioural data. As such, this response extends Griffiths' (2007) points surrounding the efficacy of behavioural data previously used in studies on problematic gambling, to consider its merit for future research on IA or associated topics such as Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) or "Smartphone addiction". Within this, we highlight the challenges associated with utilising behavioural data but provide some practical solutions which may support researchers and practitioners in this field. These recent developments could, in turn, advance our understanding and potentially validate such concepts by establishing behavioural correlates, conditions and contexts. Indeed, corroborating behavioural metrics alongside self-report measures presents a key opportunity if scholars and practitioners are to move the field forward.

Conceptual Issues Concerning Internet Addiction and Internet Gaming Disorder: Further Critique on Ryding and Kaye (2017)

The recent commentary paper by Ryding and Kaye Journal of Mental Health and Addiction (doi 10.1007/s11469-017-9811-6, 2017) rightly claimed that “internet addiction” (IA) is a conceptual minefield and raised some important issues for researchers and treatment providers working in the online addiction field. In the present commentary paper, some of the assertions made by Ryding and Kaye are briefly critiqued and extended. More specifically, the present paper (i) examines IA and Internet-based addictions and argues that IA is now a misnomer, (ii) examines IA and its relationship to Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) and argues IA and IGD are two completely different constructs, and that IGD is a sub-type of gaming disorder rather than a sub-type of IA, (iii) argues that the time spent engaging in online activities is not a good criterion for assessing online addictions and that the context of use is far more important criterion, and (iv) argues that those researchers working in the IA field can learn a lot from the problem gambling field in collecting robust data. More specifically, one of the innovative ways forward could be to build strategic partnerships with commercial online companies to analyze their behavioral tracking data.