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Scheiblich H, Eikens F, Wischhof L, Opitz S, Jüngling K, Cserép C, Schmidt SV, Lambertz J, Bellande T, Pósfai B, Geck C, Spitzer J, Odainic A, Castro-Gomez S, Schwartz S, Boussaad I, Krüger R, Glaab E, Di Monte DA, Bano D, Dénes Á, Latz E, Melki R, Pape HC, Heneka MT. Microglia rescue neurons from aggregate-induced neuronal dysfunction and death through tunneling nanotubes. Neuron 2024:S0896-6273(24)00491-4. [PMID: 39059388 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2024.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
Microglia are crucial for maintaining brain health and neuron function. Here, we report that microglia establish connections with neurons using tunneling nanotubes (TNTs) in both physiological and pathological conditions. These TNTs facilitate the rapid exchange of organelles, vesicles, and proteins. In neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease, toxic aggregates of alpha-synuclein (α-syn) and tau accumulate within neurons. Our research demonstrates that microglia use TNTs to extract neurons from these aggregates, restoring neuronal health. Additionally, microglia share their healthy mitochondria with burdened neurons, reducing oxidative stress and normalizing gene expression. Disrupting mitochondrial function with antimycin A before TNT formation eliminates this neuroprotection. Moreover, co-culturing neurons with microglia and promoting TNT formation rescues suppressed neuronal activity caused by α-syn or tau aggregates. Notably, TNT-mediated aggregate transfer is compromised in microglia carrying Lrrk22(Gly2019Ser) or Trem2(T66M) and (R47H) mutations, suggesting a role in the pathology of these gene variants in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Scheiblich
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Bonn, Germany; Max-Planck-Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne, Germany
| | - Frederik Eikens
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Bonn, Germany; Max-Planck-Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne, Germany
| | - Lena Wischhof
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Bonn, Germany; Max-Planck-Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne, Germany
| | - Sabine Opitz
- Institute of Neuropathology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Kay Jüngling
- Institute of Physiology I, Westfälische Wilhelms-University Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Csaba Cserép
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Susanne V Schmidt
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | | | - Tracy Bellande
- Institut François Jacob, CEA and Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Balázs Pósfai
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Charlotte Geck
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Jasper Spitzer
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Alexandru Odainic
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | | | | | - Ibrahim Boussaad
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Rejko Krüger
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Enrico Glaab
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | | | - Daniele Bano
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Bonn, Germany
| | - Ádám Dénes
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Eike Latz
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Bonn, Germany; Institute of innate immunity, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Ronald Melki
- Institut François Jacob, CEA and Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Hans-Christian Pape
- Institute of Physiology I, Westfälische Wilhelms-University Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Michael T Heneka
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Bonn, Germany; Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, Belvaux, Luxembourg; Institute of innate immunity, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany; Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts, Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
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Lin L, Wu Z, Luo H, Huang Y. Cathepsin-mediated regulation of alpha-synuclein in Parkinson's disease: a Mendelian randomization study. Front Aging Neurosci 2024; 16:1394807. [PMID: 38872630 PMCID: PMC11170285 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2024.1394807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective The observational association between cathepsin and Parkinson's disease (PD) has been partially explored in previous research. However, the causal relationship remains unclear. In this study, our objective is to investigate the causal link between cathepsin and PD using Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis and elucidate the underlying mechanisms governing their interaction. Methods Utilizing bidirectional two-sample MR and multivariable MR, we systematically investigates the causal relationship between nine cathepsins and PD. The data pertaining to cathepsins were obtained from the Integrative Epidemiology Unit (IEU) Open GWAS Project, while data related to PD were sourced from versions R9 and R10 of the FinnGen database. The primary analytical method utilized was the inverse variance weighted (IVW), with MR analysis initially conducted using PD data from R9, complemented by a series of sensitivity analyses. Subsequently, replication analysis was performed on the R10 dataset, and meta-analysis were employed to merge the findings from both datasets. To explore potential mechanisms by which Cathepsins may impact PD, MR analyses were performed on significant Cathepsins with alpha-synuclein. MR analysis and colocalization analysis were conducted on expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) data of gene related to alpha-synuclein with PD data. Result Forward MR analyses revealed more cathepsin B (CTSB) associated with less PD risk (OR = 0.898, 95%CI: 0.834-0.966, p = 0.004), while more cathepsin H (CTSH) (OR = 1.076, 95%CI: 1.007-1.149, p = 0.029) and more cathepsin S (CTSS) (OR = 1.076, 95%CI: 1.007-1.150, p = 0.030) associated with increasing PD risk. Meta-analyses validated these associations. Multivariate MR Results were consistent with those before adjustment. No significant results were observed in bidirectional MR analysis. In the investigation of the underlying mechanism, our findings demonstrate that CTSB significantly reduces the levels of alpha-synuclein (OR = 0.909, 95%CI: 0.841-0.983, p = 0.017). Concurrently, a genetically determined positive correlation between alpha-synuclein and PD is illuminated by both eQTL MR and colocalization analysis. Conclusion In conclusion, this MR study yields robust evidence suggesting an association between elevated levels of CTSB and reduced PD risk, mediated by the downregulation of alpha-synuclein levels. Conversely, higher levels of CTSH and CTSS are associated with an increased risk of PD. These findings offer novel insights into the pathophysiological mechanisms of PD and identify potential drug targets for disease prevention and treatment warranting further clinical investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liyu Lin
- The First Clinical Medical College of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zilun Wu
- The First Clinical Medical College of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Haocheng Luo
- The First Clinical Medical College of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yunxuan Huang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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Stoka V, Vasiljeva O, Nakanishi H, Turk V. The Role of Cysteine Protease Cathepsins B, H, C, and X/Z in Neurodegenerative Diseases and Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:15613. [PMID: 37958596 PMCID: PMC10650516 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242115613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2023] [Revised: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Papain-like cysteine proteases are composed of 11 human cysteine cathepsins, originally located in the lysosomes. They exhibit broad specificity and act as endopeptidases and/or exopeptidases. Among them, only cathepsins B, H, C, and X/Z exhibit exopeptidase activity. Recently, cysteine cathepsins have been found to be present outside the lysosomes and often participate in various pathological processes. Hence, they have been considered key signalling molecules. Their potentially hazardous proteolytic activities are tightly regulated. This review aims to discuss recent advances in understanding the structural aspects of these four cathepsins, mechanisms of their zymogen activation, regulation of their activities, and functional aspects of these enzymes in neurodegeneration and cancer. Neurodegenerative effects have been evaluated, particularly in Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, and neuropsychiatric disorders. Cysteine cathepsins also participate in tumour progression and metastasis through the overexpression and secretion of proteases, which trigger extracellular matrix degradation. To our knowledge, this is the first review to provide an in-depth analysis regarding the roles of cysteine cathepsins B, H, C, and X in neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. Further advances in understanding the functions of cysteine cathepsins in these conditions will result in the development of novel, targeted therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Stoka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
- Jožef Stefan International Postgraduate School, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Olga Vasiljeva
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
- CytomX Therapeutics, Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Hiroshi Nakanishi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Yasuda Women’s University, Hiroshima 731-0153, Japan;
| | - Vito Turk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular and Structural Biology, Jožef Stefan Institute, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
- Jožef Stefan International Postgraduate School, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Müller T. DNL151, DNL201, and BIIB094: experimental agents for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2023; 32:787-792. [PMID: 37755071 DOI: 10.1080/13543784.2023.2263357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Pathogenic mutations of the abundant leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 gene support the onset of familial and sporadic forms of Parkinson's disease. These genetic variants catalyze kinase activity by substrate phosphorylation. They promote the nigrostriatal neurodegenerative process, i.e. characterized by Lewy body formation. AREAS COVERED This narrative review discusses leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 inhibitors as therapeutic concept for beneficial disease modification following a literature search. EXPERT OPINION Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 gene function contributes to the onset of microglia inflammation, cellular, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 inhibition with oral application of DNL151, respectively DNL201, and intrathecal administration of the antisense oligonucleotide BIIB094 in a single and multiple ascending dose study was safe and well tolerated. Approval of Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 inhibitors in case of positive clinical study outcomes will introduce personalized medicine for beneficial modification of progression as the most unmet need for treatment of patients with Parkinson's disease. In addition to the currently, preponderantly performed clinical rating with established scales, further clinical trial endpoints, such as dosing of dopamine substitution, may be considered in study designs to demonstrate therapeutic effects on the progression of Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Müller
- Department of Neurology, St. Joseph Hospital Berlin-Weissensee, Berlin, Germany
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Hu J, Zhang D, Tian K, Ren C, Li H, Lin C, Huang X, Liu J, Mao W, Zhang J. Small-molecule LRRK2 inhibitors for PD therapy: Current achievements and future perspectives. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 256:115475. [PMID: 37201428 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a multifunctional protein that orchestrates a diverse array of cellular processes, including vesicle transport, autophagy, lysosome degradation, neurotransmission, and mitochondrial activity. Hyperactivation of LRRK2 triggers vesicle transport dysfunction, neuroinflammation, accumulation of α-synuclein, mitochondrial dysfunction, and the loss of cilia, ultimately leading to Parkinson's disease (PD). Therefore, targeting LRRK2 protein is a promising therapeutic strategy for PD. The clinical translation of LRRK2 inhibitors was historically impeded by issues surrounding tissue specificity. Recent studies have identified LRRK2 inhibitors that have no effect on peripheral tissues. Currently, there are four small-molecule LRRK2 inhibitors undergoing clinical trials. This review provides a summary of the structure and biological functions of LRRK2, along with an overview of the binding modes and structure-activity relationships (SARs) of small-molecule inhibitors targeting LRRK2. It offers valuable references for developing novel drugs targeting LRRK2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiarui Hu
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Joint Research Institution of Altitude Health and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Dan Zhang
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Joint Research Institution of Altitude Health and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Keyue Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Changyu Ren
- Chengdu Fifth People's Hospital, Chengdu, 611130, Sichuan, China
| | - Heng Li
- Chengdu Fifth People's Hospital, Chengdu, 611130, Sichuan, China
| | - Congcong Lin
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Medicine Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150081, China
| | - Xiaoli Huang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Institute of Respiratory Health, Center of Gerontology and Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Jie Liu
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Joint Research Institution of Altitude Health and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China.
| | - Wuyu Mao
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Joint Research Institution of Altitude Health and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China; Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Institute of Respiratory Health, Center of Gerontology and Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China.
| | - Jifa Zhang
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Joint Research Institution of Altitude Health and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China.
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Wang Q, Xue X, Huang Z, Wang Y. Microglia Share the Burden. Neurosci Bull 2022; 38:695-698. [PMID: 35415798 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-022-00854-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Wang
- School of Pharmacy and Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, China.,Key Laboratory of Elemene Class Anti-Cancer Chinese Medicines; Engineering Laboratory of Development and Application of Traditional Chinese Medicines; Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicines of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, China
| | - Xiumin Xue
- School of Pharmacy and Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, China.,Key Laboratory of Elemene Class Anti-Cancer Chinese Medicines; Engineering Laboratory of Development and Application of Traditional Chinese Medicines; Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicines of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, China
| | - Zhihui Huang
- School of Pharmacy and Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, China. .,Key Laboratory of Elemene Class Anti-Cancer Chinese Medicines; Engineering Laboratory of Development and Application of Traditional Chinese Medicines; Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicines of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, China.
| | - Yongjie Wang
- School of Pharmacy and Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Hospital, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, China. .,Key Laboratory of Elemene Class Anti-Cancer Chinese Medicines; Engineering Laboratory of Development and Application of Traditional Chinese Medicines; Collaborative Innovation Center of Traditional Chinese Medicines of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, China.
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Modeling Parkinson's disease in LRRK2 mice: focus on synaptic dysfunction and the autophagy-lysosomal pathway. Biochem Soc Trans 2022; 50:621-632. [PMID: 35225340 DOI: 10.1042/bst20211288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are associated with familial and sporadic forms of Parkinson's disease (PD), for which the LRRK2 locus itself represents a risk factor. Idiopathic and LRRK2-related PD share the main clinical and neuropathological features, thus animals harboring the most common LRRK2 mutations, i.e. G2019S and R1441C/G, have been generated to replicate the parkinsonian phenotype and investigate the underlying pathological mechanisms. Most LRRK2 rodent models, however, fail to show the main neuropathological hallmarks of the disease i.e. the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and presence of Lewy bodies or Lewy body-like aggregates of α-synuclein, lacking face validity. Rather, they manifest dysregulation in cellular pathways and functions that confer susceptibility to a variety of parkinsonian toxins/triggers and model the presymptomatic/premotor stages of the disease. Among such susceptibility factors, dysregulation of synaptic activity and proteostasis are evident in LRRK2 mutants. These abnormalities are also manifest in the PD brain and represent key events in the development and progression of the pathology. The present minireview covers recent articles (2018-2021) investigating the role of LRRK2 and LRRK2 mutants in the regulation of synaptic activity and autophagy-lysosomal pathway. These articles confirm a perturbation of synaptic vesicle endocytosis and glutamate release in LRRK2 mutants. Likewise, LRRK2 mutants show a marked impairment of selective forms of autophagy (i.e. mitophagy and chaperone-mediated autophagy) and lysosomal function, with minimal perturbations of nonselective autophagy. Thus, LRRK2 rodents might help understand the contribution of these pathways to PD.
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Brzozowski CF, Hijaz BA, Singh V, Gcwensa NZ, Kelly K, Boyden ES, West AB, Sarkar D, Volpicelli-Daley LA. Inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity promotes anterograde axonal transport and presynaptic targeting of α-synuclein. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2021; 9:180. [PMID: 34749824 PMCID: PMC8576889 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-021-01283-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathologic inclusions composed of α-synuclein called Lewy pathology are hallmarks of Parkinson’s Disease (PD). Dominant inherited mutations in leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common genetic cause of PD. Lewy pathology is found in the majority of individuals with LRRK2-PD, particularly those with the G2019S-LRRK2 mutation. Lewy pathology in LRRK2-PD associates with increased non-motor symptoms such as cognitive deficits, anxiety, and orthostatic hypotension. Thus, understanding the relationship between LRRK2 and α-synuclein could be important for determining the mechanisms of non-motor symptoms. In PD models, expression of mutant LRRK2 reduces membrane localization of α-synuclein, and enhances formation of pathologic α-synuclein, particularly when synaptic activity is increased. α-Synuclein and LRRK2 both localize to the presynaptic terminal. LRRK2 plays a role in membrane traffic, including axonal transport, and therefore may influence α-synuclein synaptic localization. This study shows that LRRK2 kinase activity influences α-synuclein targeting to the presynaptic terminal. We used the selective LRRK2 kinase inhibitors, MLi-2 and PF-06685360 (PF-360) to determine the impact of reduced LRRK2 kinase activity on presynaptic localization of α-synuclein. Expansion microscopy (ExM) in primary hippocampal cultures and the mouse striatum, in vivo, was used to more precisely resolve the presynaptic localization of α-synuclein. Live imaging of axonal transport of α-synuclein-GFP was used to investigate the impact of LRRK2 kinase inhibition on α-synuclein axonal transport towards the presynaptic terminal. Reduced LRRK2 kinase activity increases α-synuclein overlap with presynaptic markers in primary neurons, and increases anterograde axonal transport of α-synuclein-GFP. In vivo, LRRK2 inhibition increases α-synuclein overlap with glutamatergic, cortico-striatal terminals, and dopaminergic nigral-striatal presynaptic terminals. The findings suggest that LRRK2 kinase activity plays a role in axonal transport, and presynaptic targeting of α-synuclein. These data provide potential mechanisms by which LRRK2-mediated perturbations of α-synuclein localization could cause pathology in both LRRK2-PD, and idiopathic PD.
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Scheiblich H, Dansokho C, Mercan D, Schmidt SV, Bousset L, Wischhof L, Eikens F, Odainic A, Spitzer J, Griep A, Schwartz S, Bano D, Latz E, Melki R, Heneka MT. Microglia jointly degrade fibrillar alpha-synuclein cargo by distribution through tunneling nanotubes. Cell 2021; 184:5089-5106.e21. [PMID: 34555357 PMCID: PMC8527836 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2021.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are the CNS resident immune cells that react to misfolded proteins through pattern recognition receptor ligation and activation of inflammatory pathways. Here, we studied how microglia handle and cope with α-synuclein (α-syn) fibrils and their clearance. We found that microglia exposed to α-syn establish a cellular network through the formation of F-actin-dependent intercellular connections, which transfer α-syn from overloaded microglia to neighboring naive microglia where the α-syn cargo got rapidly and effectively degraded. Lowering the α-syn burden attenuated the inflammatory profile of microglia and improved their survival. This degradation strategy was compromised in cells carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation. We confirmed the intercellular transfer of α-syn assemblies in microglia using organotypic slice cultures, 2-photon microscopy, and neuropathology of patients. Together, these data identify a mechanism by which microglia create an "on-demand" functional network in order to improve pathogenic α-syn clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Scheiblich
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease and Geriatric Psychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, 53127 Bonn, Germany; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Cira Dansokho
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease and Geriatric Psychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, 53127 Bonn, Germany; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Dilek Mercan
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease and Geriatric Psychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, 53127 Bonn, Germany; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Susanne V Schmidt
- Institute of Innate Immunity, University of Bonn Medical Center, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Luc Bousset
- Institut François Jacob, MIRCen, CEA and Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, CNRS, 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Lena Wischhof
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Frederik Eikens
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease and Geriatric Psychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, 53127 Bonn, Germany; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Alexandru Odainic
- Institute of Innate Immunity, University of Bonn Medical Center, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Jasper Spitzer
- Institute of Innate Immunity, University of Bonn Medical Center, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Angelika Griep
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Stephanie Schwartz
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease and Geriatric Psychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Daniele Bano
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Eicke Latz
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 53127 Bonn, Germany; Institute of Innate Immunity, University of Bonn Medical Center, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Ronald Melki
- Institut François Jacob, MIRCen, CEA and Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, CNRS, 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Michael T Heneka
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease and Geriatric Psychiatry/Neurology, University of Bonn Medical Center, 53127 Bonn, Germany; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 53127 Bonn, Germany; Divison of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 01605 Worcester, MA, USA.
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Goveas L, Mutez E, Chartier-Harlin MC, Taymans JM. Mind the Gap: LRRK2 Phenotypes in the Clinic vs. in Patient Cells. Cells 2021; 10:981. [PMID: 33922322 PMCID: PMC8145309 DOI: 10.3390/cells10050981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the Parkinson's disease (PD) protein Leucine Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2) have been under study for more than 15 years and our understanding of the cellular phenotypes for the pathogenic mutant forms of LRRK2 has significantly advanced. In parallel to research on LRRK2 mutations in experimental systems, clinical characterization of patients carrying LRRK2 mutations has advanced, as has the analysis of cells that are derived from these patients, including fibroblasts, blood-derived cells, or cells rendered pluripotent. Under the hypothesis that patient clinical phenotypes are a consequence of a cascade of underlying molecular mechanisms gone astray, we currently have a unique opportunity to compare findings from patients and patient-derived cells to ask the question of whether the clinical phenotype of LRRK2 Parkinson's disease and cellular phenotypes of LRRK2 patient-derived cells may be mutually informative. In this review, we aim to summarize the available information on phenotypes of LRRK2 mutations in the clinic, in patient-derived cells, and in experimental models in order to better understand the relationship between the three at the molecular and cellular levels and identify trends and gaps in correlating the data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liesel Goveas
- UMR-S 1172—LilNCog—Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, Université de Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France; (L.G.); (E.M.)
| | - Eugénie Mutez
- UMR-S 1172—LilNCog—Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, Université de Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France; (L.G.); (E.M.)
- Neurology and Movement Disorders Department, CHU Lille University Hospital, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Marie-Christine Chartier-Harlin
- UMR-S 1172—LilNCog—Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, Université de Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France; (L.G.); (E.M.)
| | - Jean-Marc Taymans
- UMR-S 1172—LilNCog—Lille Neuroscience & Cognition, Université de Lille, Inserm, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France; (L.G.); (E.M.)
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11
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LRRK2 at the Crossroad of Aging and Parkinson's Disease. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12040505. [PMID: 33805527 PMCID: PMC8066012 DOI: 10.3390/genes12040505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a heterogeneous neurodegenerative disease characterized by the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and the widespread occurrence of proteinaceous inclusions known as Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites. The etiology of PD is still far from clear, but aging has been considered as the highest risk factor influencing the clinical presentations and the progression of PD. Accumulating evidence suggests that aging and PD induce common changes in multiple cellular functions, including redox imbalance, mitochondria dysfunction, and impaired proteostasis. Age-dependent deteriorations in cellular dysfunction may predispose individuals to PD, and cellular damages caused by genetic and/or environmental risk factors of PD may be exaggerated by aging. Mutations in the LRRK2 gene cause late-onset, autosomal dominant PD and comprise the most common genetic causes of both familial and sporadic PD. LRRK2-linked PD patients show clinical and pathological features indistinguishable from idiopathic PD patients. Here, we review cellular dysfunctions shared by aging and PD-associated LRRK2 mutations and discuss how the interplay between the two might play a role in PD pathologies.
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12
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De Miranda BR, Castro SL, Rocha EM, Bodle CR, Johnson KE, Greenamyre JT. The industrial solvent trichloroethylene induces LRRK2 kinase activity and dopaminergic neurodegeneration in a rat model of Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 153:105312. [PMID: 33636387 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene-environment interaction is implicated in the majority of idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD) risk, and some of the most widespread environmental contaminants are selectively toxic to dopaminergic neurons. Pesticides have long been connected to PD incidence, however, it has become increasingly apparent that other industrial byproducts likely influence neurodegeneration. For example, organic solvents, which are used in chemical, machining, and dry-cleaning industries, are of growing concern, as decades of solvent use and their effluence into the environment has contaminated much of the world's groundwater and soil. Like some pesticides, certain organic solvents, such as the chlorinated halocarbon trichloroethylene (TCE), are mitochondrial toxicants, which are collectively implicated in the pathogenesis of dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Recently, we hypothesized a possible gene-environment interaction may occur between environmental mitochondrial toxicants and the protein kinase LRRK2, mutations of which are the most common genetic cause of familial and sporadic PD. In addition, emerging data suggests that elevated wildtype LRRK2 kinase activity also contributes to the pathogenesis of idiopathic PD. To this end, we investigated whether chronic, systemic TCE exposure (200 mg/kg) in aged rats produced wildtype LRRK2 activation and caused nigrostriatal dopaminergic dysfunction. Interestingly, we found that TCE not only induced LRRK2 kinase activity in the brain, but produced a significant dopaminergic lesion in the nigrostriatal tract, elevated oxidative stress, and caused endolysosomal dysfunction and α-synuclein accumulation. Together, these data suggest that TCE-induced LRRK2 kinase activity contributed to the selective toxicity of dopaminergic neurons. We conclude that gene-environment interactions between certain industrial contaminants and LRRK2 likely influence PD risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Briana R De Miranda
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America.
| | - Sandra L Castro
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
| | - Emily M Rocha
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
| | - Christopher R Bodle
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
| | - Katrina E Johnson
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
| | - J Timothy Greenamyre
- Pittsburgh Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
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13
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Zhao Y, Keshiya S, Perera G, Schramko L, Halliday GM, Dzamko N. LRRK2 kinase inhibitors reduce alpha-synuclein in human neuronal cell lines with the G2019S mutation. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 144:105049. [PMID: 32800998 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.105049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Kinase activating missense mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) predispose to Parkinson's disease. Consequently, there is much interest in delineating LRRK2 biology, both in terms of gaining further insight into disease causes, and also determining whether or not LRRK2 is a potential Parkinson's disease therapeutic target. Indeed, many potent and selective small molecule inhibitors of LRRK2 have been developed and are currently being used for pre-clinical testing in cell and animal models. In the current study, we have obtained fibroblasts from four subjects with the common LRRK2 mutation, G2019S. Fibroblasts were reprogrammed to induced pluripotent stem cells and then to neural stem cells and ultimately neurons. Two clones for each of the human neural cell lines were then chronically treated with and without either of two distinct inhibitors of LRRK2 and effects on toxicity and Parkinson's disease related phenotypes were assessed. Cells with the G2019S mutation had a propensity to accumulate the pathological Parkinson's disease protein α-synuclein. Moreover, α-synuclein accumulation in the G2019S cells was significantly reduced with both LRRK2 inhibitors in seven of the eight cell lines studied. LRRK2 inhibitors also improved the nuclear morphology of G2019S cells and impacted on measures of autophagy and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Lastly, we did not find evidence of inhibitor toxicity under the chronic treatment conditions. These results add to evidence that LRRK2 inhibitors may have utility in the treatment of Parkinson's disease via reducing α-synuclein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Zhao
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney NSW 2031 & School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; Brain and Mind Centre & Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Shikara Keshiya
- Brain and Mind Centre & Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Gayathri Perera
- Brain and Mind Centre & Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Lauren Schramko
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney NSW 2031 & School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Glenda M Halliday
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney NSW 2031 & School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; Brain and Mind Centre & Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Nicolas Dzamko
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney NSW 2031 & School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; Brain and Mind Centre & Central Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
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14
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Madureira M, Connor-Robson N, Wade-Martins R. "LRRK2: Autophagy and Lysosomal Activity". Front Neurosci 2020; 14:498. [PMID: 32523507 PMCID: PMC7262160 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
It has been 15 years since the Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene was identified as the most common genetic cause for Parkinson's disease (PD). The two most common mutations are the LRRK2-G2019S, located in the kinase domain, and the LRRK2-R1441C, located in the ROC-COR domain. While the LRRK2-G2019S mutation is associated with increased kinase activity, the LRRK2-R1441C exhibits a decreased GTPase activity and altered kinase activity. Multiple lines of evidence have linked the LRRK2 protein with a role in the autophagy pathway and with lysosomal activity in neurons. Neurons rely heavily on autophagy to recycle proteins and process cellular waste due to their post-mitotic state. Additionally, lysosomal activity decreases with age which can potentiate the accumulation of α-synuclein, the pathological hallmark of PD, and subsequently lead to the build-up of Lewy bodies (LBs) observed in this disorder. This review provides an up to date summary of the LRRK2 field to understand its physiological role in the autophagy pathway in neurons and related cells. Careful assessment of how LRRK2 participates in the regulation of phagophore and autophagosome formation, autophagosome and lysosome fusion, lysosomal maturation, maintenance of lysosomal pH and calcium levels, and lysosomal protein degradation are addressed. The autophagy pathway is a complex cellular process and due to the variety of LRRK2 models studied in the field, associated phenotypes have been reported to be seemingly conflicting. This review provides an in-depth discussion of different models to assess the normal and disease-associated role of the LRRK2 protein on autophagic function. Given the importance of the autophagy pathway in Parkinson's pathogenesis it is particularly relevant to focus on the role of LRRK2 to discover novel therapeutic approaches that restore lysosomal protein degradation homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Madureira
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, Oxford Parkinson’s Disease Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Graduate Program in Areas of Basic and Applied Biology (GABBA), Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas de Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Natalie Connor-Robson
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, Oxford Parkinson’s Disease Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Wade-Martins
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, Oxford Parkinson’s Disease Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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