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You Y, Liu YL, Ai ZY, Wang YS, Liu JM, Piao CH, Wang YH. Lactobacillus fermentum KP-3-fermented ginseng ameliorates alcohol-induced liver disease in C57BL/6N mice through the AMPK and MAPK pathways. Food Funct 2021; 11:9801-9809. [PMID: 33079125 DOI: 10.1039/d0fo02396e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Panax ginseng was fermented using Lactobacillus fermentum KP-3, and the levels of the minor ginsenosides were measured. Then, the effect of fermented ginseng on alcohol-induced liver injury was investigated. C57BL/6N mice were randomly assigned to 4 groups: pair fed (PF), alcohol fed (AF), alcohol with non-fermented ginseng (AF + NFG) and alcohol with fermented ginseng (AF + FG) groups. After treatment for 8 weeks, fermented ginseng intervention significantly reduced the levels of serum ALT, AST, LPS, TG and TC compared with the AF group. The western-blotting results showed that fermented ginseng activated the adenosine-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway to inhibit de novo lipogenesis in the liver and inhibited phosphorylation of p38 through the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway to alleviate hepatic inflammation, and these effects were superior than those of non-fermented ginseng. Furthermore, fermented ginseng reduced alcohol-induced liver oxidative damage by upregulating the levels of antioxidant enzymes. These findings suggested that the L. fermentum KP-3-fermented ginseng product may be used as a potential dietary nutraceutical for alleviating alcoholic liver injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying You
- College of Food science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China.
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2
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Zhang Q, Yang C, Zhang M, Lu X, Cao W, Xie C, Li X, Wu J, Zhong C, Geng S. Protective effects of ginseng stem-leaf saponins on D-galactose-induced reproductive injury in male mice. Aging (Albany NY) 2021; 13:8916-8928. [PMID: 33714944 PMCID: PMC8034965 DOI: 10.18632/aging.202709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Panax ginseng is a perennial plant in the Araliaceae family. In this study, we investigated the protective effects of ginseng stem-leaf saponins (GSLS) isolated from P. ginseng against D-galactose-induced reproductive function decline, oxidative stress, and inflammatory response. Reproductive injuries were induced in mice via the subcutaneous injection of D-galactose (300 mg/kg) for six weeks. The mice were then treated with GSLS by intragastric administration. GSLS inhibited markers of oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines induced by D-galactose in serum, liver and kidney, whereas GSLS increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes. Compared to the mice treated only with D-galactose, GSLS treatment significantly increased the average path velocity, straight line velocity, curvilinear velocity, and amplitude of the lateral head displacement of mouse sperm. Meanwhile, GSLS significantly increased the testosterone level and reduced the cortisol, FSH, and LH levels. Histopathological examination revealed alterations in the number and the arrangement of spermatogenic cells in the seminiferous tubules of the mice in the GSLS group. GSLS treatment suppressed MAPKs pathway activation in testes. These results suggest that GSLS can attenuate D-galactose-induced oxidative stress and inflammatory response in serum, liver and kidney, and ameliorate reproductive damage by inhibiting MAPKs signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Zhang
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chenying Yang
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, China
| | - Min Zhang
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaomin Lu
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wanshuang Cao
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chunfeng Xie
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, China.,Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaoting Li
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, China.,Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jieshu Wu
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, China.,Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, China
| | - Caiyun Zhong
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, China.,Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shanshan Geng
- Department of Nutrition and Food Safety, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, China.,Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, Jiangsu, China
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Li HY, Gan RY, Shang A, Mao QQ, Sun QC, Wu DT, Geng F, He XQ, Li HB. Plant-Based Foods and Their Bioactive Compounds on Fatty Liver Disease: Effects, Mechanisms, and Clinical Application. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2021; 2021:6621644. [PMID: 33728021 PMCID: PMC7939748 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6621644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Fatty liver disease (FLD), including nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and alcoholic fatty liver disease (AFLD), is a serious chronic metabolic disease that affects a wide range of people. Lipid accumulation accompanied by oxidative stress and inflammation in the liver is the most important pathogenesis of FLD. The plant-based, high-fiber, and low-fat diet has been recommended to manage FLD for a long time. This review discusses the current state of the art into the effects, mechanisms, and clinical application of plant-based foods in NAFLD and AFLD, with highlighting related molecular mechanisms. Epidemiological evidence revealed that the consumption of several plant-based foods was beneficial to alleviating FLD. Further experimental studies found out that fruits, spices, teas, coffee, and other plants, as well as their bioactive compounds, such as resveratrol, anthocyanin, curcumin, and tea polyphenols, could alleviate FLD by ameliorating hepatic steatosis, oxidative stress, inflammation, gut dysbiosis, and apoptosis, as well as regulating autophagy and ethanol metabolism. More importantly, clinical trials confirmed the beneficial effects of plant-based foods on patients with fatty liver. However, several issues need to be further studied especially the safety and effective doses of plant-based foods and their bioactive compounds. Overall, certain plant-based foods are promising natural sources of bioactive compounds to prevent and alleviate fatty liver disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hang-Yu Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food, Nutrition and Health, Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Ren-You Gan
- Research Center for Plants and Human Health, Institute of Urban Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu 610213, China
| | - Ao Shang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food, Nutrition and Health, Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Qian-Qian Mao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food, Nutrition and Health, Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Quan-Cai Sun
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212001, China
| | - Ding-Tao Wu
- Institute of Food Processing and Safety, College of Food Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an, China
| | - Fang Geng
- Key Laboratory of Coarse Cereal Processing (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs), School of Food and Biological Engineering, Chengdu University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiao-Qin He
- Research Center for Plants and Human Health, Institute of Urban Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu 610213, China
| | - Hua-Bin Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food, Nutrition and Health, Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
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Selection of Suitable Reference Genes for qPCR Gene Expression Analysis of HepG2 and L02 in Four Different Liver Cell Injured Models. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 2020:8926120. [PMID: 32733961 PMCID: PMC7376413 DOI: 10.1155/2020/8926120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2019] [Accepted: 06/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) has become a widely used approach to analyze the expression level of selected genes. However, owing to variations in cell types and drug treatments, a suitable reference gene should be selected according to special experimental design. In this study, we investigated the expression level of ten candidate reference genes in hepatoma carcinoma cell (HepG2) and human hepatocyte cell line (L02) treated with ethanol (EtOH), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), acetaminophen (APAP), and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), respectively. To analyze raw cycle threshold values (Cp values) from qPCR run, three reference gene validation programs, including Bestkeeper, geNorm, and NormFinder, were used to evaluate the stability of ten candidate reference genes. The results showed that TATA-box binding protein (TBP) and tubulin beta 2a (TUBB2a) presented the highest stability for normalization under different treatments and were regarded as the most suitable reference genes of HepG2 and L02. In addition, this study not only identified the most stable reference genes of each treatment, but also suggested that β-actin (ACTB), glyceraldehade-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), tyrosine 3-monooxygenase/tryptophan 5-monooxygenase activation protein zeta (YWHAZ), and beta-2 microglobulin (B2M) were the least stable reference genes in HepG2 and L02. This work was the first report to systematically explore the stability of reference genes in injured models of HepG2 and L02.
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Kong LZ, Chandimali N, Han YH, Lee DH, Kim JS, Kim SU, Kim TD, Jeong DK, Sun HN, Lee DS, Kwon T. Pathogenesis, Early Diagnosis, and Therapeutic Management of Alcoholic Liver Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20112712. [PMID: 31159489 PMCID: PMC6600448 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20112712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) refers to the damages to the liver and its functions due to alcohol overconsumption. It consists of fatty liver/steatosis, alcoholic hepatitis, steatohepatitis, chronic hepatitis with liver fibrosis or cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. However, the mechanisms behind the pathogenesis of alcoholic liver disease are extremely complicated due to the involvement of immune cells, adipose tissues, and genetic diversity. Clinically, the diagnosis of ALD is not yet well developed. Therefore, the number of patients in advanced stages has increased due to the failure of proper early detection and treatment. At present, abstinence and nutritional therapy remain the conventional therapeutic interventions for ALD. Moreover, the therapies which target the TNF receptor superfamily, hormones, antioxidant signals, and MicroRNAs are used as treatments for ALD. In particular, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are gaining attention as a potential therapeutic target of ALD. Therefore, in this review, we have summarized the current understandings of the pathogenesis and diagnosis of ALD. Moreover, we also discuss the various existing treatment strategies while focusing on promising therapeutic approaches for ALD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling-Zu Kong
- Laboratory of Animal Genetic Engineering and Stem Cell Biology, Advanced Convergence Technology and Science, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Korea.
- Immunotherapy Convergence Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Korea.
| | - Nisansala Chandimali
- Laboratory of Animal Genetic Engineering and Stem Cell Biology, Advanced Convergence Technology and Science, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Korea.
- Immunotherapy Convergence Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Korea.
| | - Ying-Hao Han
- Department of Disease Model Animal Research Center, College of Life Science and Technology, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China.
| | - Dong-Ho Lee
- Primate Resources Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Jeongeup-si, Jeonbuk 56216, Korea.
| | - Ji-Su Kim
- Primate Resources Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Jeongeup-si, Jeonbuk 56216, Korea.
| | - Sun-Uk Kim
- Futuristic Animal Resource & Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do 28116, Korea.
| | - Tae-Don Kim
- Immunotherapy Convergence Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Korea.
| | - Dong Kee Jeong
- Laboratory of Animal Genetic Engineering and Stem Cell Biology, Advanced Convergence Technology and Science, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Korea.
- Subtropical/Tropical Organism Gene Bank, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Korea.
| | - Hu-Nan Sun
- Department of Disease Model Animal Research Center, College of Life Science and Technology, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing 163319, China.
- Subtropical/Tropical Organism Gene Bank, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Korea.
| | - Dong Sun Lee
- Subtropical/Tropical Organism Gene Bank, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Korea.
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Applied Life Science, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Korea.
| | - Taeho Kwon
- Primate Resources Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Jeongeup-si, Jeonbuk 56216, Korea.
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Liu X, Shi Y, Hu H, Li J, Li C, Yang L, Wang Z. Three new C-glycosyflavones with acetyl substitutions from Swertia mileensis. J Nat Med 2018; 72:922-928. [PMID: 30051310 DOI: 10.1007/s11418-018-1225-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Three new acetylated C-glycosylflavones, 3″,6″-di-O-acetylswertiajaponin (1), 4″,6″-di-O-acetylswertiajaponin (2), and 6″-O-acetylswertiajaponin (3), together with six known compounds were isolated from the whole herb of Swertia mileensis. Their structures were elucidated on extensive NMR experiments and mass spectrometry studies. 1H and 13C NMR data exhibited doublet signals at room temperature. Variable temperature 1H NMR experiments were carried out to investigate the presence of rotational isomerism of C-glycosylflavones. All compounds showed potential antioxidant activities against apoptosis of H2O2-induced human embryo liver L02 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Ministry of Education, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Yanhong Shi
- Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Ministry of Education, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Haijun Hu
- Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Ministry of Education, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Jia Li
- Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Ministry of Education, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Chunge Li
- Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Ministry of Education, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Li Yang
- Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Ministry of Education, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Zhengtao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Ministry of Education, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China. .,Shanghai R&D Centre for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Shanghai, 201210, China.
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7
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Qi K, Li X, Geng Y, Cui H, Jin C, Wang P, Li Y, Yang Y. Tongxinluo attenuates reperfusion injury in diabetic hearts by angiopoietin-like 4-mediated protection of endothelial barrier integrity via PPAR-α pathway. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0198403. [PMID: 29912977 PMCID: PMC6005559 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0198403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2018] [Accepted: 05/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Endothelial barrier function in the onset and Tongxinluo (TXL) protection of myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, and TXL can induce the secretion of Angiopoietin-like 4 (Angptl4) in human cardiac microvascular endothelial cells during hypoxia/reoxygenation. We intend to demonstrate whether TXL can attenuate myocardial I/R injury in diabetes, characterized with microvascular endothelial barrier disruption, by induction of Angptl4-mediated protection of endothelial barrier integrity. Methods and results I/R injury was created by coronary ligation in ZDF diabetic and non-diabetic control rats. The animals were anesthetized and randomized to sham operation or I/R injury with or without the exposure to insulin, rhAngptl4, TXL, Angptl4 siRNA, and the PPAR-α inhibitor MK886. Tongxinluo, insulin and rhAngptl4 have the similar protective effect on diabetic hearts against I/R injury. In I/R-injured diabetic hearts, TXL treatment remarkably reduced the infarct size, and protected endothelial barrier integrity demonstrated by decreased endothelial cells apoptosis, microvascular permeability, and myocardial hemorrhage, fortified tight junction, and upregulated expression of JAM-A, integrin-α5, and VE-cadherin, and these effects of TXL were as effective as insulin and rhAngptl4. However, Angptl4 knock-down with siRNA interference and inhibition of PPAR-α with MK886 partially diminished these beneficial effects of TXL and rhAngptl4. TXL induced the expression of Angptl4 in I/R-injured diabetic hearts, and was canceled by Angptl4 siRNA and MK886. TXL treatment increased myocardial PPAR-α activity, and was abolished by MK886 but not by Angptl4 siRNA. Conclusions TXL protects diabetic hearts against I/R injury by activating Angptl4-mediated restoration of endothelial barrier integrity via the PPAR-α pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kang Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Xiangdong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Yongjian Geng
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, United States of America
| | - Hehe Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Chen Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Peihe Wang
- Peking Key Laboratory for Pre-clinical Evaluation of Cardiovascular Implant Material, State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Animal Experimental Center, Fuwai Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Yue Li
- Peking Key Laboratory for Pre-clinical Evaluation of Cardiovascular Implant Material, State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Animal Experimental Center, Fuwai Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Yuejin Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Disease, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- * E-mail:
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Ginsenoside Rb2 Alleviates Hepatic Lipid Accumulation by Restoring Autophagy via Induction of Sirt1 and Activation of AMPK. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18051063. [PMID: 28534819 PMCID: PMC5454975 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18051063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Revised: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Although Panax ginseng is a famous traditional Chinese medicine and has been widely used to treat a variety of metabolic diseases including hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, and hepatosteatosis, the effective mediators and molecular mechanisms remain largely unknown. In this study we found that ginsenoside Rb2, one of the major ginsenosides in Panax ginseng, was able to prevent hepatic lipid accumulation through autophagy induction both in vivo and in vitro. Treatment of male db/db mice with Rb2 significantly improved glucose tolerance, decreased hepatic lipid accumulation, and restored hepatic autophagy. In vitro, Rb2 (50 µmol/L) obviously increased autophagic flux in HepG2 cells and primary mouse hepatocytes, and consequently reduced the lipid accumulation induced by oleic acid in combination with high glucose. Western blotting analysis showed that Rb2 partly reversed the high fatty acid in combination with high glucose (OA)-induced repression of autophagic pathways including AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and silent information regulator 1 (sirt1). Furthermore, pharmacological inhibition of the sirt1 or AMPK pathways attenuated these beneficial effects of Rb2 on hepatic autophagy and lipid accumulation. Taken together, these results suggested that Rb2 alleviated hepatic lipid accumulation by restoring autophagy via the induction of sirt1 and activation of AMPK, and resulted in improved nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and glucose tolerance.
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