A striking parallel between cardiolipin fatty acid composition and phylogenetic belonging in marine bivalves: a possible adaptative evolution?

Sexual dimorphism in the gonad lipidome of blue mussels (Mytilus sp.): New insights from a global lipidomics approach

Blue mussels (Mytilus sp.) are an economically important species for European aquaculture. Their importance as a food source is expected to increase in the coming net-zero society due to their low environmental footprint; however, their production is affected by anthropogenic stressors and climate change. During reproduction, lipids are key molecules for mussels as they are the main source of energy on which newly hatched embryos depend in the first days of their development. In this work, blue mussels of different origins are analysed, focusing on the differences in lipid composition between the ovary (BMO) and the testis (BMT). The lipidome of blue mussel gonads (BMG) is studied here by combining traditional lipid profiling methods, such as fatty acid and lipid class analysis, with untargeted liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) lipidomics. The approach used here enabled the identification of 770 lipid molecules from 23 different lipid classes in BMG. BMT, which consists of billions of spermatocytes, had greater amounts of cell membrane and membrane lipid components such as FA18:0, C20 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), free sterols (ST), ceramide phosphoethanolamines (CerPE), ceramide aminoethylphosphonates (CAEP), cardiolipins (CL), glycerophosphocholines (PC), glycerophosphoethanolamines (PE) and glycerophosphoserines (PS). In BMO, saturated fatty acids (FA14:0 and FA16:0), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and other storage components such as C18-PUFA accumulated in triradylglycerolipids (TG) and alkyldiacylglycerols (neutral plasmalogens, TG O-), which, together with terpenes, wax esters and cholesterol esters, make up most of oocytes yolk reserves. BMO also had higher levels of ceramides (Cer) and generally alkyl/alkenyl glycerophospholipids (mainly plasmanyl/plasmenyl PC), suggesting a role for these lipids in vitellogenesis. Non-methylene interrupted dienoic fatty acids (NMID FA), typically found in plasmalogens, were the only membrane-forming PUFA predominantly detected in BMO. The results of this study are of great importance for clarifying the lipid composition of BMG and provide an important basis for future studies on the reproductive physiology of these organisms.

Lipidomics analysis of juveniles' blue mussels (Mytilus edulis L. 1758), a key economic and ecological species

Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis L. 1758) are important components of coastal ecosystems and in the economy of rural and coastal areas. The understanding of their physiological processes at key life stages is important both within food production systems and in the management of wild populations. Lipids are crucial molecules for bivalve growth, but their diversity and roles have not been fully characterised. In this study, traditional lipid profiling techniques, such as fatty acid (FA) and lipid class analysis, are combined to untargeted lipidomics to elucidate the lipid metabolism in newly settled spat fed on a range of diets. The evaluated diets included single strains treatments (Cylindrotheca fusiformis CCAP 1017/2 -CYL, Isochrysis galbana CCAP 927/1- ISO, Monodopsis subterranean CCAP 848/1 -MONO, Nannochloropsis oceanica CCAP 849/10- NANNO) and a commercial algae paste (SP). Spat growth was influenced by the diets, which, according to their efficacy were ranked as follows: ISO>NANNO/CYL>SP>MONO. A higher triacylglycerols (TG) content, ranging from 4.23±0.82 μg mgashfree Dry weight (DW)-1 at the beginning of the trial (T0) to 51±15.3 μg mgashfreeDW-1 in ISO, characterised significant growth in the spat, whereas, a reduction of TG (0.3±0.08 μg mgashfreeDW-1 in MONO), mono unsaturated FA-MUFA (from 8.52±1.02 μg mgFAashfreeDW-1 at T0 to 2.81±1.02 μg mgFAashfreeDW-1 in MONO) and polyunsaturated FA-PUFA (from 17.57±2.24 μg mgFAashfreeDW-1 at T0 to 6.19±2.49 μg mgFAashfreeDW-1 in MONO) content characterised poor performing groups. Untargeted lipidomics evidenced how the availability of dietary essential PUFA did not influence only neutral lipids but also the membrane lipids, with changes in lipid molecular species in relation to the essential PUFA provided via the diet. Such changes have the potential to affect spat production cycle and their ability to respond to the surrounding environment. This study evidenced the advantages of coupling different lipid analysis techniques, as each technique disclosed relevant information on nutritional requirements of M. edulis juveniles, expanding the existing knowledge on the physiology of this important species.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids incorporation into cardiolipin in H9c2 cardiac myoblast

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), known as ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), are common nutrients in daily food intake and have been shown to prevent cardiovascular disease and improve cardiac functions. Cardiolipin is a mitochondrial phospholipid necessary for maintaining physiological function of mitochondria. Several studies have indicated that the cardiolipin acyl chain compositions affect the function of cardiolipin and mitochondria. Here, we investigated the structural changes of cardiolipin after DHA and EPA supplementation and compared them to arachidonic acid (AA) treatment. H9c2 cardiac myoblast was used as a cell model, and cardiolipin species was monitored and identified via LC-MS and MS/MS. Our results showed distinct mass envelopes of cardiolipin with the same carbon number but different double bonds in mass spectrum. There were 116 cardiolipin species with 36 distinct mass in 6 mass envelopes identified by MS/MS. Three days of PUFA treatment resulted in decreases of low-molecular-weight cardiolipin and increases of high-molecular-weight cardiolipin, suggesting the incorporation of exogenous DHA, EPA and AA into mitochondrial cardiolipin. PUFA incorporation was further verified by MS/MS analysis. More importantly, we found that DHA supplementation elevated the percent content of less unsaturated cardiolipin species and highly unsaturated cardiolipin species, containing ω-3 fatty acyl chains, indicating a ω-3 fatty acid incorporation mechanism with peroxidation protection. Our results indicate that PUFA supplementation differentially perturbed the fatty acyl chain compositions in the mitochondrial cardiolipin in the H9c2 cardiac myoblast, suggesting that mitochondrial membrane and the function of mitochondria are susceptible to exogenous lipid species.

Cell cycle arrest and cell survival induce reverse trends of cardiolipin remodeling

Cell survival from the arrested state can be a cause of the cancer recurrence. Transition from the arrest state to the growth state is highly regulated by mitochondrial activity, which is related to the lipid compositions of the mitochondrial membrane. Cardiolipin is a critical phospholipid for the mitochondrial integrity and functions. We examined the changes of cardiolipin species by LC-MS in the transition between cell cycle arrest and cell reviving in HT1080 fibrosarcoma cells. We have identified 41 cardiolipin species by MS/MS and semi-quantitated them to analyze the detailed changes of cardiolipin species. The mass spectra of cardiolipin with the same carbon number form an envelope, and the C64, C66, C68, C70 C72 and C74 envelopes in HT1080 cells show a normal distribution in the full scan mass spectrum. The cardiolipin quantity in a cell decreases while entering the cell cycle arrest, but maintains at a similar level through cell survival. While cells awakening from the arrested state and preparing itself for replication, the groups with short acyl chains, such as C64, C66 and C68 show a decrease of cardiolipin percentage, but the groups with long acyl chains, such as C70 and C72 display an increase of cardiolipin percentage. Interestingly, the trends of the cardiolipin species changes during the arresting state are completely opposite to cell growing state. Our results indicate that the cardiolipin species shift from the short chain to long chain cardiolipin during the transition from cell cycle arrest to cell progression.

Cardiolipin asymmetry, oxidation and signaling

Cardiolipins (CLs) are ancient and unusual dimeric phospholipids localized in the plasma membrane of bacteria and in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes. In mitochondria, two types of asymmetries--trans-membrane and molecular--are essential determinants of CL functions. In this review, we describe CL-based signaling mitochondrial pathways realized via modulation of trans-membrane asymmetry and leading to externalization and peroxidation of CLs in mitophagy and apoptosis, respectively. We discuss possible mechanisms of CL translocations from the inner leaflet of the inner to the outer leaflet of the outer mitochondrial membranes. We present redox reaction mechanisms of cytochrome c-catalyzed CL peroxidation as a required stage in the execution of apoptosis. We also emphasize the significance of CL-related metabolic pathways as new targets for drug discovery. Finally, a remarkable diversity of polyunsaturated CL species and their oxidation products have evolved in eukaryotes vs. prokaryotes. This diversity--associated with CL molecular asymmetry--is presented as the basis for mitochondrial communications language.

Structural and functional changes in gill mitochondrial membranes from the Mediterranean mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis exposed to tri-n-butyltin

The use of tributyltin (TBT) as a biocide in antifouling paints leads to a ruinous input of this contaminant in the aquatic environment. Human exposure to TBT mainly occurs through ingestion of contaminated seafood such as filter-feeding mollusks. Tributyltin is known to act as a membrane-active toxicant on several targets, but especially on the mitochondria, and by several mechanisms. The effects of tributyltin on fatty acid composition, on Mg-adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) activities, and on the membrane physical state were investigated in gill mitochondrial membranes from cultivated mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis exposed to 0.5 µg/L and 1.0 µg/L TBT and unexposed for 120 h. The higher TBT exposure dose induced a decrease in the total and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), especially 22:6 n-3, and an activation of the oligomycin-sensitive Mg-ATPase. Both TBT concentrations decreased mitochondrial membrane polarity detected by Laurdan steady-state fluorescence spectroscopy. These findings may help cast light on the multiple modes of action of this toxicant.

Is the fatty acid composition of freshwater zoobenthic invertebrates controlled by phylogenetic or trophic factors?

We studied the fatty acid (FA) content and composition of ten zoobenthic species of several taxonomic groups from different freshwater bodies. Special attention was paid to essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3), and arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4n-6); and the n-3/n-6 and DHA/ARA ratios, which are important for consumers of higher trophic levels, i.e., fish. The content and ratios of these FA varied significantly in the studied zoobenthic species, consequently, the invertebrates were of different nutritional quality for fish. Eulimnogammarus viridis (Crustacea) and Dendrocoelopsis sp. (Turbellaria) had the highest nutrition value for fish concerning the content of EPA and DHA and n-3/n-6 and DHA/ARA ratios. Using canonical correspondence analysis we compared the FA profiles of species of the studied taxa taking into account their feeding strategies and habitats. We gained evidence that feeding strategy is of importance to determine fatty acid profiles of zoobenthic species. However, the phylogenetic position of the zoobenthic species is also responsible and may result in a similar fatty acid composition even if species or populations inhabit different water bodies or have different feeding strategies.