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Gätjens-Boniche O, Jiménez-Madrigal JP, Whetten RW, Valenzuela-Diaz S, Alemán-Gutiérrez A, Hanson PE, Pinto-Tomás AA. Microbiome and plant cell transformation trigger insect gall induction in cassava. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1237966. [PMID: 38126017 PMCID: PMC10731979 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1237966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Several specialised insects can manipulate normal plant development to induce a highly organised structure known as a gall, which represents one of the most complex interactions between insects and plants. Thus far, the mechanism for insect-induced plant galls has remained elusive. To study the induction mechanism of insect galls, we selected the gall induced by Iatrophobia brasiliensis (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in cassava (Euphorbiaceae: Manihot esculenta Crantz) as our model. PCR-based molecular markers and deep metagenomic sequencing data were employed to analyse the gall microbiome and to test the hypothesis that gall cells are genetically transformed by insect vectored bacteria. A shotgun sequencing discrimination approach was implemented to selectively discriminate between foreign DNA and the reference host plant genome. Several known candidate insertion sequences were identified, the most significant being DNA sequences found in bacterial genes related to the transcription regulatory factor CadR, cadmium-transporting ATPase encoded by the cadA gene, nitrate transport permease protein (nrtB gene), and arsenical pump ATPase (arsA gene). In addition, a DNA fragment associated with ubiquitin-like gene E2 was identified as a potential accessory genetic element involved in gall induction mechanism. Furthermore, our results suggest that the increased quality and rapid development of gall tissue are mostly driven by microbiome enrichment and the acquisition of critical endophytes. An initial gall-like structure was experimentally obtained in M. esculenta cultured tissues through inoculation assays using a Rhodococcus bacterial strain that originated from the inducing insect, which we related to the gall induction process. We provide evidence that the modification of the endophytic microbiome and the genetic transformation of plant cells in M. esculenta are two essential requirements for insect-induced gall formation. Based on these findings and having observed the same potential DNA marker in galls from other plant species (ubiquitin-like gene E2), we speculate that bacterially mediated genetic transformation of plant cells may represent a more widespread gall induction mechanism found in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar Gätjens-Boniche
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Escuela de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Campus Tecnológico Local San Carlos, Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica, Alajuela, Costa Rica
| | - Jose Pablo Jiménez-Madrigal
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Escuela de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Campus Tecnológico Local San Carlos, Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica, Alajuela, Costa Rica
| | - Ross W. Whetten
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Sandro Valenzuela-Diaz
- Human Microbiome Research Program, Faculty of Medicine, The Helsinki University, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Alvaro Alemán-Gutiérrez
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular, Escuela de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Campus Tecnológico Local San Carlos, Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica, Alajuela, Costa Rica
- Laboratorio de Genómica y Biodiversidad, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad del Bío-Bío, Chillán, Chile
| | - Paul E. Hanson
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Adrián A. Pinto-Tomás
- Center for Research in Microscopic Structures and Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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2
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Desnitskiy AG, Chetverikov PE, Ivanova LA, Kuzmin IV, Ozman-Sullivan SK, Sukhareva SI. Molecular Aspects of Gall Formation Induced by Mites and Insects. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:1347. [PMID: 37374129 DOI: 10.3390/life13061347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent publications on gall formation induced on the leaves of dicotyledonous flowering plants by eriophyoid mites (Eriophyoidea) and representatives of four insect orders (Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera) are analyzed. Cellular and molecular level data on the stimuli that induce and sustain the development of both mite and insect galls, the expression of host plant genes during gallogenesis, and the effects of these galling arthropods on photosynthesis are considered. A hypothesis is proposed for the relationship between the size of galls and the volume of secretions injected by a parasite. Multistep, varying patterns of plant gene expression and accompanying histo-morphological changes in the transformed gall tissues are apparent. The main obstacle to better elucidating the nature of the induction of gallogenesis is the impossibility of collecting a sufficient amount of saliva for analysis, which is especially important in the case of microscopic eriophyoids. The use of modern omics technologies at the organismal level has revealed a spectrum of genetic mechanisms of gall formation at the molecular level but has not yet answered the questions regarding the nature of gall-inducing agents and the features of events occurring in plant cells at the very beginning of gall growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexey G Desnitskiy
- Department of Embryology, Saint-Petersburg State University, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia
| | - Philipp E Chetverikov
- Zoological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Saint-Petersburg State University, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia
| | | | - Igor V Kuzmin
- X-BIO Institute, Tyumen State University, 625003 Tyumen, Russia
| | - Sebahat K Ozman-Sullivan
- Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Ondokuz Mayis University, 55139 Samsun, Turkey
| | - Sogdiana I Sukhareva
- Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Saint-Petersburg State University, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia
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Yang M, Li H, Qiao H, Guo K, Xu R, Wei H, Wei J, Liu S, Xu C. Integrated Transcriptome and Metabolome Dynamic Analysis of Galls Induced by the Gall Mite Aceria pallida on Lycium barbarum Reveals the Molecular Mechanism Underlying Gall Formation and Development. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:9839. [PMID: 37372986 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24129839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Revised: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Galls have become the best model for exploring plant-gall inducer relationships, with most studies focusing on gall-inducing insects but few on gall mites. The gall mite Aceria pallida is a major pest of wolfberry, usually inducing galls on its leaves. For a better understanding of gall mite growth and development, the dynamics of the morphological and molecular characteristics and phytohormones of galls induced by A. pallida were studied by histological observation, transcriptomics and metabolomics. The galls developed from cell elongation of the epidermis and cell hyperplasia of mesophylls. The galls grew quickly, within 9 days, and the mite population increased rapidly within 18 days. The genes involved in chlorophyll biosynthesis, photosynthesis and phytohormone synthesis were significantly downregulated in galled tissues, but the genes associated with mitochondrial energy metabolism, transmembrane transport, carbohydrates and amino acid synthesis were distinctly upregulated. The levels of carbohydrates, amino acids and their derivatives, and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and cytokinins (CKs), were markedly enhanced in galled tissues. Interestingly, much higher contents of IAA and CKs were detected in gall mites than in plant tissues. These results suggest that galls act as nutrient sinks and favor increased accumulation of nutrients for mites, and that gall mites may contribute IAA and CKs during gall formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengke Yang
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Huanle Li
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Haili Qiao
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Kun Guo
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Rong Xu
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Hongshuang Wei
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jianhe Wei
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Sai Liu
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Changqing Xu
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China
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Fiutek N, Couger MB, Pirro S, Roy SW, de la Torre JR, Connor EF. Genomic Assessment of the Contribution of the Wolbachia Endosymbiont of Eurosta solidaginis to Gall Induction. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24119613. [PMID: 37298563 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24119613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
We explored the genome of the Wolbachia strain, wEsol, symbiotic with the plant-gall-inducing fly Eurosta solidaginis with the goal of determining if wEsol contributes to gall induction by its insect host. Gall induction by insects has been hypothesized to involve the secretion of the phytohormones cytokinin and auxin and/or proteinaceous effectors to stimulate cell division and growth in the host plant. We sequenced the metagenome of E. solidaginis and wEsol and assembled and annotated the genome of wEsol. The wEsol genome has an assembled length of 1.66 Mbp and contains 1878 protein-coding genes. The wEsol genome is replete with proteins encoded by mobile genetic elements and shows evidence of seven different prophages. We also detected evidence of multiple small insertions of wEsol genes into the genome of the host insect. Our characterization of the genome of wEsol indicates that it is compromised in the synthesis of dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) and S-adenosyl L-methionine (SAM), which are precursors required for the synthesis of cytokinins and methylthiolated cytokinins. wEsol is also incapable of synthesizing tryptophan, and its genome contains no enzymes in any of the known pathways for the synthesis of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) from tryptophan. wEsol must steal DMAPP and L-methionine from its host and therefore is unlikely to provide cytokinin and auxin to its insect host for use in gall induction. Furthermore, in spite of its large repertoire of predicted Type IV secreted effector proteins, these effectors are more likely to contribute to the acquisition of nutrients and the manipulation of the host's cellular environment to contribute to growth and reproduction of wEsol than to aid E. solidaginis in manipulating its host plant. Combined with earlier work that shows that wEsol is absent from the salivary glands of E. solidaginis, our results suggest that wEsol does not contribute to gall induction by its host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Fiutek
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94112, USA
| | - Matthew B Couger
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Stacy Pirro
- Iridian Genomes Inc., Bethesda, MD 20817, USA
| | - Scott W Roy
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94112, USA
| | - José R de la Torre
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94112, USA
| | - Edward F Connor
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94112, USA
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Seng S, Ponce GE, Andreas P, Kisiala A, De Clerck-Floate R, Miller DG, Chen MS, Price PW, Tooker JF, Emery RJN, Connor EF. Abscisic Acid: A Potential Secreted Effector Synthesized by Phytophagous Insects for Host-Plant Manipulation. INSECTS 2023; 14:489. [PMID: 37367305 PMCID: PMC10299484 DOI: 10.3390/insects14060489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Abscisic acid (ABA) is an isoprenoid-derived plant signaling molecule involved in a wide variety of plant processes, including facets of growth and development as well as responses to abiotic and biotic stress. ABA had previously been reported in a wide variety of animals, including insects and humans. We used high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-(ESI)-MS/MS) to examine concentrations of ABA in 17 species of phytophagous insects, including gall- and non-gall-inducing species from all insect orders with species known to induce plant galls: Thysanoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera. We found ABA in insect species in all six orders, in both gall-inducing and non-gall-inducing species, with no tendency for gall-inducing insects to have higher concentrations. The concentrations of ABA in insects often markedly exceeded those typically found in plants, suggesting it is highly improbable that insects obtain all their ABA from their host plant via consumption and sequestration. As a follow-up, we used immunohistochemistry to determine that ABA localizes to the salivary glands in the larvae of the gall-inducing Eurosta solidaginis (Diptera: Tephritidae). The high concentrations of ABA, combined with its localization to salivary glands, suggest that insects are synthesizing and secreting ABA to manipulate their host plants. The pervasiveness of ABA among both gall- and non-gall-inducing insects and our current knowledge of the role of ABA in plant processes suggest that insects are using ABA to manipulate source-sink mechanisms of nutrient allocation or to suppress host-plant defenses. ABA joins the triumvirate of phytohormones, along with cytokinins (CKs) and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), that are abundant, widespread, and localized to glandular organs in insects and used to manipulate host plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephannie Seng
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA;
| | - Gabriela E. Ponce
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA; (G.E.P.); (J.F.T.)
| | - Peter Andreas
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9J 7B8, Canada; (P.A.); (A.K.); (R.J.N.E.)
| | - Anna Kisiala
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9J 7B8, Canada; (P.A.); (A.K.); (R.J.N.E.)
| | | | - Donald G. Miller
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Chico, CA 95929, USA;
| | - Ming-Shun Chen
- USDA-ARS and Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA;
| | - Peter W. Price
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86001, USA;
| | - John F. Tooker
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA; (G.E.P.); (J.F.T.)
| | - R. J. Neil Emery
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9J 7B8, Canada; (P.A.); (A.K.); (R.J.N.E.)
| | - Edward F. Connor
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA;
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6
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Desnitskiy AG, Chetverikov PE. Induction of Leaf Galls by Four-Legged Mites (Eriophyoidea) as a Problem of Developmental Biology. Russ J Dev Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s1062360422010039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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7
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Comparison of Auxin and Cytokinins Concentrations, and the Structure of Bacterial Community between Host Twigs and Lithosaphonecrus arcoverticus Galls. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12110982. [PMID: 34821783 PMCID: PMC8618787 DOI: 10.3390/insects12110982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Insect galls are characterized by high concentrations of auxins and cytokinins. We calculated the correlation between the concentrations of indoleacetic acid (IAA), trans-zeatin riboside (tZR) and isopentenyladenine (iP) and the bacterial community structure of Lithosaphonecrus arcoverticus galls. Our results indicated the concentrations of IAA, tZR and iP were positively correlated with the bacterial community structure of L. arcoverticus galls. We suggest the high concentrations of IAA, tZR and iP may affect the bacterial community structure of L. arcoverticus galls. Abstract Insect galls are the abnormal growth of plant tissues induced by a wide variety of galling insects and characterized by high concentrations of auxins and cytokinins. It remains unclear whether the auxins and cytokinins affect the bacterial community structure of insect galls. We determined the concentrations of indoleacetic acid (IAA) as an example of auxin, trans-zeatin riboside (tZR) and isopentenyladenine (iP) as cytokinins in Lithosaphonecrus arcoverticus (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) galls and the galled twigs of Lithocarpus glaber (Fagaceae) using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Moreover, for the first time, we compared the bacterial community structure of L. arcoverticus galls and galled twigs by high-throughput sequencing, and calculated the Spearman correlation and associated degree of significance between the IAA, tZR and iP concentrations and the bacterial community structure. Our results indicated the concentrations of IAA, tZR and iP were higher in L. arcoverticus galls than in galled twigs, and positively correlated with the bacterial community structure of L. arcoverticus galls. We suggest the high concentrations of IAA, tZR and iP may affect the bacterial community structure of L. arcoverticus galls.
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Takeda S, Hirano T, Ohshima I, Sato MH. Recent Progress Regarding the Molecular Aspects of Insect Gall Formation. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:9424. [PMID: 34502330 PMCID: PMC8430891 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22179424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Galls are characteristic plant structures formed by cell size enlargement and/or cell proliferation induced by parasitic or pathogenic organisms. Insects are a major inducer of galls, and insect galls can occur on plant leaves, stems, floral buds, flowers, fruits, or roots. Many of these exhibit unique shapes, providing shelter and nutrients to insects. To form unique gall structures, gall-inducing insects are believed to secrete certain effector molecules and hijack host developmental programs. However, the molecular mechanisms of insect gall induction and development remain largely unknown due to the difficulties associated with the study of non-model plants in the wild. Recent advances in next-generation sequencing have allowed us to determine the biological processes in non-model organisms, including gall-inducing insects and their host plants. In this review, we first summarize the adaptive significance of galls for insects and plants. Thereafter, we summarize recent progress regarding the molecular aspects of insect gall formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seiji Takeda
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University, Shimogamo-Hangi-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8522, Japan; (S.T.); (T.H.); (I.O.)
- Biotechnology Research Department, Kyoto Prefectural Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries Technology Center, Kitainayazuma Oji 74, Seika, Kyoto 619-0244, Japan
- Center for Frontier Natural History, Kyoto Prefectural University, Shimogamo-Hangi-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8522, Japan
| | - Tomoko Hirano
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University, Shimogamo-Hangi-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8522, Japan; (S.T.); (T.H.); (I.O.)
- Center for Frontier Natural History, Kyoto Prefectural University, Shimogamo-Hangi-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8522, Japan
| | - Issei Ohshima
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University, Shimogamo-Hangi-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8522, Japan; (S.T.); (T.H.); (I.O.)
- Center for Frontier Natural History, Kyoto Prefectural University, Shimogamo-Hangi-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8522, Japan
| | - Masa H. Sato
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Kyoto Prefectural University, Shimogamo-Hangi-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8522, Japan; (S.T.); (T.H.); (I.O.)
- Center for Frontier Natural History, Kyoto Prefectural University, Shimogamo-Hangi-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8522, Japan
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