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Akyol O, Yang CY, Woodside DG, Chiang HH, Chen CH, Gotto AM. Comparative Analysis of Atherogenic Lipoproteins L5 and Lp(a) in Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2024; 26:317-329. [PMID: 38753254 PMCID: PMC11192678 DOI: 10.1007/s11883-024-01209-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) poses a risk for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). As LDL comprises various subtypes differing in charge, density, and size, understanding their specific impact on ASCVD is crucial. Two highly atherogenic LDL subtypes-electronegative LDL (L5) and Lp(a)-induce vascular cell apoptosis and atherosclerotic changes independent of plasma cholesterol levels, and their mechanisms warrant further investigation. Here, we have compared the roles of L5 and Lp(a) in the development of ASCVD. RECENT FINDINGS Lp(a) tends to accumulate in artery walls, promoting plaque formation and potentially triggering atherosclerosis progression through prothrombotic or antifibrinolytic effects. High Lp(a) levels correlate with calcific aortic stenosis and atherothrombosis risk. L5 can induce endothelial cell apoptosis and increase vascular permeability, inflammation, and atherogenesis, playing a key role in initiating atherosclerosis. Elevated L5 levels in certain high-risk populations may serve as a distinctive predictor of ASCVD. L5 and Lp(a) are both atherogenic lipoproteins contributing to ASCVD through distinct mechanisms. Lp(a) has garnered attention, but equal consideration should be given to L5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omer Akyol
- Molecular Cardiology Research Laboratories, Vascular and Medicinal Research, The Texas Heart Institute, Houston, Texas, 77030, USA
| | - Chao-Yuh Yang
- Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas, 77030, USA
| | - Darren G Woodside
- Molecular Cardiology Research Laboratories, The Texas Heart Institute, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Huan-Hsing Chiang
- Molecular Cardiology Research Laboratories, Vascular and Medicinal Research, The Texas Heart Institute, Houston, Texas, 77030, USA
| | - Chu-Huang Chen
- Molecular Cardiology Research Laboratories, Vascular and Medicinal Research, The Texas Heart Institute, Houston, Texas, 77030, USA.
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Law SH, Ke CC, Chu CS, Liu SH, Weng MC, Ke LY, Chan HC. SPECT/CT imaging for tracking subendothelial retention of electronegative low-density lipoprotein in vivo. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 250:126069. [PMID: 37536403 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2023] [Revised: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
The fifth subfraction of low-density lipoprotein (L5 LDL) can be separated from human LDL using fast-protein liquid chromatography with an anion exchange column. L5 LDL induces vascular endothelial injury both in vitro and in vivo through the lectin-like oxidized LDL receptor-1 (LOX-1). However, no in vivo evidence shows the tendency of L5 LDL deposition on vascular endothelium and links to dysfunction. This study aimed to investigate L5 LDL retention in vivo using SPECT/CT imaging, with Iodine-131 (131I)-labeled and injected into six-month-old apolipoprotein E knockout (apoE-/-) mice through tail veins. Besides, we examined the biodistribution of L5 LDL in tissues and analyzed the intracellular trafficking in human aortic endothelial cells (HAoECs) by confocal microscopy. The impacts of L5 LDL on HAoECs were analyzed using electron microscopy for mitochondrial morphology and western blotting for signaling. Results showed 131I-labeled-L5 was preferentially deposited in the heart and vessels compared to L1 LDL. Furthermore, L5 LDL was co-localized with the mitochondria and associated with mitofusin (MFN1/2) and optic atrophy protein 1 (OPA1) downregulation, leading to mitochondrial fission. In summary, L5 LDL exhibits a propensity for subendothelial retention, thereby promoting endothelial dysfunction and the formation of atherosclerotic lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi Hui Law
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Chih Ke
- Department of Medical Imaging and Radiological Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan; Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Sheng Chu
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Municipal Ta-Tung Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Division of Cardiology, Department of International Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Center for Lipid Biosciences, Department of Medical Research, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Hsuan Liu
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, Bristol, England, United Kingdom
| | - Mao-Chi Weng
- Isotope Application Division, Institute of Nuclear Energy Research, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Liang-Yin Ke
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Center for Lipid Biosciences, Department of Medical Research, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Medicine & Graduate Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
| | - Hua-Chen Chan
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, College of Medicine, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
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The Association between Electronegative Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol L5 and Cognitive Functions in Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment. J Pers Med 2023; 13:jpm13020192. [PMID: 36836428 PMCID: PMC9960852 DOI: 10.3390/jpm13020192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
L5, the most electronegative subfraction of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), may play a role in the pathogenesis of cerebrovascular dysfunction and neurodegeneration. We hypothesized that serum L5 is associated with cognitive impairment and investigated the association between serum L5 levels and cognitive performance in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). This cross-sectional study conducted in Taiwan included 22 patients with MCI and 40 older people with normal cognition (healthy controls). All participants were assessed with the Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument (CASI) and a CASI-estimated Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE-CE). We compared the serum total cholesterol (TC), LDL-C, and L5 levels between the MCI and control groups and examined the association between lipid profiles and cognitive performance in these groups. The serum L5 concentration and total CASI scores were significantly negatively correlated in the MCI group. Serum L5% was negatively correlated with MMSE-CE and total CASI scores, particularly in the orientation and language subdomains. No significant correlation between the serum L5 level and cognitive performance was noted in the control group. Conclusions: Serum L5, instead of TC or total LDL-C, could be associated with cognitive impairment through a disease stage-dependent mode that occurs during neurodegeneration.
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Yu L, Peng J, Mineo C. Lipoprotein sialylation in atherosclerosis: Lessons from mice. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:953165. [PMID: 36157440 PMCID: PMC9498574 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.953165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Sialylation is a dynamically regulated modification, which commonly occurs at the terminal of glycan chains in glycoproteins and glycolipids in eukaryotic cells. Sialylation plays a key role in a wide array of biological processes through the regulation of protein-protein interactions, intracellular localization, vesicular trafficking, and signal transduction. A majority of the proteins involved in lipoprotein metabolism and atherogenesis, such as apolipoproteins and lipoprotein receptors, are sialylated in their glycan structures. Earlier studies in humans and in preclinical models found a positive correlation between low sialylation of lipoproteins and atherosclerosis. More recent works using loss- and gain-of-function approaches in mice have revealed molecular and cellular mechanisms by which protein sialylation modulates causally the process of atherosclerosis. The purpose of this concise review is to summarize these findings in mouse models and to provide mechanistic insights into lipoprotein sialylation and atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liming Yu
- Center for Pulmonary and Vascular Biology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
| | - Jun Peng
- Center for Pulmonary and Vascular Biology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
| | - Chieko Mineo
- Center for Pulmonary and Vascular Biology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
- *Correspondence: Chieko Mineo,
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Bermudez-Lopez M, Perpiñan H, Amigo N, Castro E, Alonso N, Mauricio D, Fernandez E, Valdivielso JM. Advanced lipoprotein parameters could better explain atheromatosis in non-diabetic chronic kidney disease patients. Clin Kidney J 2021; 14:2591-2599. [PMID: 34950470 PMCID: PMC8690051 DOI: 10.1093/ckj/sfab113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients have a high burden of atheromatous cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) not fully explained by traditional lipid parameters. Lipoprotein composition and subclass particle number information could improve ASCVD risk assessment. The objective of this study is to investigate the association of advanced lipoprotein parameters with the risk of atheromatosis in a subpopulation of the NEFRONA study. Methods This was a cross-sectional study in 395 non-diabetic individuals (209 CKD and 186 non-diabetic and non-CKD) without statin therapy. Vascular ultrasound examination assessing 10 territories was combined with advanced lipoprotein testing performed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Logistic regression was used to estimate adjusted odds ratios (ORs) per 1 standard deviation increment. Results Atheromatosis was more prevalent in CKD patients (33.9% versus 64.6%). After adjusting for age, gender, smoking habit and CKD stage, the amount of triglycerides (TGs) within low-density lipoprotein (LDL) lipoproteins was independently and positively associated with atheromatosis [OR 1.33; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.03–1.74; P = 0.03]. Similarly, total and medium LDL particles (LDL-Ps) showed a positive association (OR 1.29; 95% CI 1.00–1.68; P = 0.05 and OR 1.34; 95% CI 1.04–1.75; P = 0.03, respectively). TG-loaded medium LDL-Ps were higher in CKD patients compared with controls and showed an adjusted OR of 1.40 (95% CI 1.09–1.82; P = 0.01) in non-diabetic patients (CKD and non-CKD individuals). In contrast, non-diabetic CKD patients showed a similar coefficient but the significance was lost (OR 1.2; 95% CI 0.8–1.7; P = 0.359). Conclusions Non-diabetic CKD patients showed a higher amount of TG-loaded medium LDL-Ps compared with controls. These particles were independently associated with atheromatosis in non-diabetic patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelino Bermudez-Lopez
- Vascular and Renal Translational Research Group, Spanish Research Network for Renal Diseases (REDINREN del ISCIII), IRBLleida, Lleida, Spain
| | - Hector Perpiñan
- Conselleria de Sanitat Universal i Salut Pública, Generalitat Valenciana, Valencia, Spain
| | | | - Eva Castro
- Vascular and Renal Translational Research Group, Spanish Research Network for Renal Diseases (REDINREN del ISCIII), IRBLleida, Lleida, Spain
| | - Nuria Alonso
- Endocrinology and Nutrition Department, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Didac Mauricio
- Center for Biomedical Research on Diabetes and Associated Metabolic Diseases (CIBERDEM), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elvira Fernandez
- Vascular and Renal Translational Research Group, Spanish Research Network for Renal Diseases (REDINREN del ISCIII), IRBLleida, Lleida, Spain
| | - Jose M Valdivielso
- Vascular and Renal Translational Research Group, Spanish Research Network for Renal Diseases (REDINREN del ISCIII), IRBLleida, Lleida, Spain
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Ke LY, Law SH, Mishra VK, Parveen F, Chan HC, Lu YH, Chu CS. Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms of Electronegative Lipoproteins in Cardiovascular Diseases. Biomedicines 2020; 8:biomedicines8120550. [PMID: 33260304 PMCID: PMC7760527 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8120550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Dysregulation of glucose and lipid metabolism increases plasma levels of lipoproteins and triglycerides, resulting in vascular endothelial damage. Remarkably, the oxidation of lipid and lipoprotein particles generates electronegative lipoproteins that mediate cellular deterioration of atherosclerosis. In this review, we examined the core of atherosclerotic plaque, which is enriched by byproducts of lipid metabolism and lipoproteins, such as oxidized low-density lipoproteins (oxLDL) and electronegative subfraction of LDL (LDL(−)). We also summarized the chemical properties, receptors, and molecular mechanisms of LDL(−). In combination with other well-known markers of inflammation, namely metabolic diseases, we concluded that LDL(−) can be used as a novel prognostic tool for these lipid disorders. In addition, through understanding the underlying pathophysiological molecular routes for endothelial dysfunction and inflammation, we may reassess current therapeutics and might gain a new direction to treat atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases, mainly targeting LDL(−) clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang-Yin Ke
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan; (L.-Y.K.); (S.H.L.); (V.K.M.); (F.P.)
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine and Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807377, Taiwan; (H.-C.C.); (Y.-H.L.)
| | - Shi Hui Law
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan; (L.-Y.K.); (S.H.L.); (V.K.M.); (F.P.)
| | - Vineet Kumar Mishra
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan; (L.-Y.K.); (S.H.L.); (V.K.M.); (F.P.)
| | - Farzana Parveen
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan; (L.-Y.K.); (S.H.L.); (V.K.M.); (F.P.)
| | - Hua-Chen Chan
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807377, Taiwan; (H.-C.C.); (Y.-H.L.)
| | - Ye-Hsu Lu
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807377, Taiwan; (H.-C.C.); (Y.-H.L.)
- Division of Cardiology, Department of International Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung 807377, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Sheng Chu
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807377, Taiwan; (H.-C.C.); (Y.-H.L.)
- Division of Cardiology, Department of International Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung 807377, Taiwan
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Municipal Ta-Tung Hospital, Kaohsiung 80145, Taiwan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +886-73121101 (ext. 2297); Fax: +886-73111996
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An Increased Plasma Level of ApoCIII-Rich Electronegative High-Density Lipoprotein May Contribute to Cognitive Impairment in Alzheimer's Disease. Biomedicines 2020; 8:biomedicines8120542. [PMID: 33256187 PMCID: PMC7761422 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8120542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
High-density lipoprotein (HDL) plays a vital role in lipid metabolism and anti-inflammatory activities; a dysfunctional HDL impairs cholesterol efflux pathways. To understand HDL's role in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), we analyzed the chemical properties and function. HDL from AD patients (AD-HDL) was separated into five subfractions, H1-H5, using fast-protein liquid chromatography equipped with an anion-exchange column. Subfraction H5, defined as the most electronegative HDL, was increased 5.5-fold in AD-HDL (23.48 ± 17.83%) in comparison with the control HDL (4.24 ± 3.22%). By liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC/MSE), AD-HDL showed that the level of apolipoprotein (apo)CIII was elevated but sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P)-associated apoM and anti-oxidative paraoxonase 1 (PON1) were reduced. AD-HDL showed a lower cholesterol efflux capacity that was associated with the post-translational oxidation of apoAI. Exposure of murine macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7, to AD-HDL induced a vibrant expression of ganglioside GM1 in colocalization with apoCIII on lipid rafts alongside a concomitant increase of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) detectable in the cultured medium. In conclusion, AD-HDL had a higher proportion of H5, an apoCIII-rich electronegative HDL subfraction. The associated increase in pro-inflammatory (apoCIII, TNF-α) components might favor Amyloid β assembly and neural inflammation. A compromised cholesterol efflux capacity of AD-HDL may also contribute to cognitive impairment.
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Neutrophils as a Novel Target of Modified Low-Density Lipoproteins and an Accelerator of Cardiovascular Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21218312. [PMID: 33167592 PMCID: PMC7664187 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21218312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) significantly contribute to various pathophysiological conditions, including cardiovascular diseases. NET formation in the vasculature exhibits inflammatory and thrombogenic activities on the endothelium. NETs are induced by various stimulants such as exogenous damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). Oxidatively modified low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) has been physiologically defined as a subpopulation of LDL that comprises various oxidative modifications in the protein components and oxidized lipids, which could act as DAMPs. oxLDL has been recognized as a crucial initiator and accelerator of atherosclerosis through foam cell formation by macrophages; however, recent studies have demonstrated that oxLDL stimulates neutrophils to induce NET formation and enhance NET-mediated inflammatory responses in vascular endothelial cells, thereby suggesting that oxLDL may be involved in cardiovascular diseases through neutrophil activation. As NETs comprise myeloperoxidase and proteases, they have the potential to mediate oxidative modification of LDL. This review summarizes recent updates on the analysis of NETs, their implications for cardiovascular diseases, and prospects for a possible link between NET formation and oxidative modification of lipoproteins.
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Chu CS, Law SH, Lenzen D, Tan YH, Weng SF, Ito E, Wu JC, Chen CH, Chan HC, Ke LY. Clinical Significance of Electronegative Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol in Atherothrombosis. Biomedicines 2020; 8:biomedicines8080254. [PMID: 32751498 PMCID: PMC7460408 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8080254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 07/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the numerous risk factors for atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (ASCVD), cumulative evidence shows that electronegative low-density lipoprotein (L5 LDL) cholesterol is a promising biomarker. Its toxicity may contribute to atherothrombotic events. Notably, plasma L5 LDL levels positively correlate with the increasing severity of cardiovascular diseases. In contrast, traditional markers such as LDL-cholesterol and triglyceride are the therapeutic goals in secondary prevention for ASCVD, but that is controversial in primary prevention for patients with low risk. In this review, we point out the clinical significance and pathophysiological mechanisms of L5 LDL, and the clinical applications of L5 LDL levels in ASCVD can be confidently addressed. Based on the previously defined cut-off value by receiver operating characteristic curve, the acceptable physiological range of L5 concentration is proposed to be below 1.7 mg/dL. When L5 LDL level surpass this threshold, clinically relevant ASCVD might be present, and further exams such as carotid intima-media thickness, pulse wave velocity, exercise stress test, or multidetector computed tomography are required. Notably, the ultimate goal of L5 LDL concentration is lower than 1.7 mg/dL. Instead, with L5 LDL greater than 1.7 mg/dL, lipid-lowering treatment may be required, including statin, ezetimibe or PCSK9 inhibitor, regardless of the low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) level. Since L5 LDL could be a promising biomarker, we propose that a high throughput, clinically feasible methodology is urgently required not only for conducting a prospective, large population study but for developing therapeutics strategies to decrease L5 LDL in the blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Sheng Chu
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807377, Taiwan;
- Division of Cardiology, Department of International Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung 807377, Taiwan
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Municipal Ta-Tung Hospital, Kaohsiung 80145, Taiwan
| | - Shi Hui Law
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan; (S.H.L.); (D.L.); (Y.-H.T.); (E.I.)
| | - David Lenzen
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan; (S.H.L.); (D.L.); (Y.-H.T.); (E.I.)
| | - Yong-Hong Tan
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan; (S.H.L.); (D.L.); (Y.-H.T.); (E.I.)
| | - Shih-Feng Weng
- Department of Healthcare Administration and Medical Informatics, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan;
| | - Etsuro Ito
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan; (S.H.L.); (D.L.); (Y.-H.T.); (E.I.)
- Department of Biology, Waseda University, Tokyo 162-8480, Japan
- Waseda Research Institute for Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo 162-8480, Japan
| | - Jung-Chou Wu
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Pingtung Christian Hospital, Pingtung 90059, Taiwan;
| | - Chu-Huang Chen
- Vascular and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA;
| | - Hua-Chen Chan
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807377, Taiwan;
- Correspondence: (H.-C.C.); (L.-Y.K.); Tel.: +886-73121101 (ext. 2296); Fax: +886-73111996 (L.-Y.K.)
| | - Liang-Yin Ke
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan; (S.H.L.); (D.L.); (Y.-H.T.); (E.I.)
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, & Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807378, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (H.-C.C.); (L.-Y.K.); Tel.: +886-73121101 (ext. 2296); Fax: +886-73111996 (L.-Y.K.)
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Ke LY, Chan HC, Chen CC, Chang CF, Lu PL, Chu CS, Lai WT, Shin SJ, Liu FT, Chen CH. Increased APOE glycosylation plays a key role in the atherogenicity of L5 low-density lipoprotein. FASEB J 2020; 34:9802-9813. [PMID: 32501643 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202000659r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is heterogeneous, composed of particles with variable atherogenicity. Electronegative L5 LDL exhibits atherogenic properties in vitro and in vivo, and its levels are elevated in patients with increased cardiovascular risk. Apolipoprotein E (APOE) content is increased in L5, but what role APOE plays in L5 function remains unclear. Here, we characterized the contributions of APOE posttranslational modification to L5's atherogenicity. Using two-dimensional electrophoresis and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, we studied APOE's posttranslational modification in L5 from human plasma. APOE structures with various glycan residues were predicted. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation were performed to examine the functional changes of APOE resulting from glycosylation. We also examined the effects of L5 deglycosylation on endothelial cell apoptosis. The glycan sequence N-acetylgalactosamine, galactose, and sialic acid was consistently expressed on serine 94, threonine 194, and threonine 289 of APOE in L5 and was predicted to contribute to L5's negative surface charge and hydrophilicity. The electrostatic force between the negatively charged sialic acid-containing glycan residue of APOE and positively charged amino acids at the receptor-binding area suggested that glycosylation interferes with APOE's attraction to receptors, lipid-binding ability, and lipid transportation and metabolism functions. Importantly, L5 containing glycosylated APOE induced apoptosis in cultured endothelial cells through lectin-like oxidized LDL receptor-1 (LOX-1) signaling, and glycosylation removal from L5 attenuated L5-induced apoptosis. APOE glycosylation may contribute to the atherogenicity of L5 and be a useful biomarker for rapidly quantifying L5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang-Yin Ke
- Vascular and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, TX, USA.,Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Hua-Chen Chan
- Vascular and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, TX, USA.,Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Chieh Chen
- Institute of Medical Science and Technology, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chuan-Fa Chang
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Po-Liang Lu
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Sheng Chu
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Ter Lai
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Shyi-Jang Shin
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Fu-Tong Liu
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.,Department of Dermatology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA, USA
| | - Chu-Huang Chen
- Vascular and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, TX, USA.,New York Heart Research Foundation, New York, NY, USA
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11
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Chen WY, Chen YF, Chan HC, Chung CH, Peng HY, Ho YC, Chen CH, Chang KC, Tang CH, Lee AS. Role of apolipoprotein E in electronegative low-density lipoprotein-induced mitochondrial dysfunction in cardiomyocytes. Metabolism 2020; 107:154227. [PMID: 32275974 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2020.154227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Revised: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE L5, a highly electronegative subtype of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), is likely associated with the development of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases. Normal LDL is composed mainly of apolipoprotein (Apo) B, but L5 has additional proteins such as ApoE. We previously demonstrated that L5 induces endothelial cell senescence by increasing mitochondrial reactive oxygen species. In the present study, we examined the effect of L5 on mitochondrial function in cardiomyocytes. METHODS We used the Seahorse XF24 extracellular flux analyzer to examine the effect of L5 and its components on mitochondrial energy production. The effects of L5 on mitochondrial morphology were examined by immunofluorescence using MitoTracker Green FM and the corresponding probes in H9c2 cardiomyoblasts. Mitochondrial permeability was assessed by using a calcium-induced swelling assay with a voltage-dependent anion-selective channel (VDAC) inhibitor to determine VDAC-dependence both in vitro and in vivo. L5 without ApoE, referred to as △L5, was used to clarify the role of ApoE in L5-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. RESULTS L5 not only significantly decreased basal (P < 0.05) and maximal respiration (P < 0.01) but also reduced spare respiratory capacity (P < 0.01) in H9c2 cells. Additionally, L5 caused phosphorylation of Drp1 and mitochondrial fission. Recombinant ApoE mimicked the mitochondrial effects of L5, but △L5 did not cause similar effects. After entering cells, ApoE on L5 colocalized with mitochondrial VDAC and caused mitochondria swelling both in vitro and in vivo. This effect was also seen with recombinant ApoE but not △L5. CONCLUSIONS ApoE may play an important role in electronegative LDL-induced mitochondrial dysfunction through the opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore via the interaction of ApoE and VDAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Yu Chen
- Graduate Institute of Basic Medical Science, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan; Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City 25245, Taiwan; Cardiovascular Research Laboratory, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40447, Taiwan
| | - Yun-Fang Chen
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City 25245, Taiwan; Cardiovascular Research Laboratory, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40447, Taiwan; Department of Chinese Pharmaceutical Sciences and Chinese Medicine Resources, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
| | - Hua-Cheng Chan
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung 80756, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Hu Chung
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City 25245, Taiwan
| | - Hsien-Yu Peng
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City 25245, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Cheng Ho
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City 25245, Taiwan.
| | - Chu-Huang Chen
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung 80756, Taiwan; Vascular and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA; New York Heart Research Foundation, Mineola, New York 11501, USA.
| | - Kuan-Cheng Chang
- Cardiovascular Research Laboratory, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40447, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Hsin Tang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan.
| | - An-Sheng Lee
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City 25245, Taiwan; Cardiovascular Research Laboratory, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40447, Taiwan.
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12
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Rivas-Urbina A, Rull A, Ordóñez-Llanos J, Sánchez-Quesada JL. Electronegative LDL: An Active Player in Atherogenesis or a By- Product of Atherosclerosis? Curr Med Chem 2019; 26:1665-1679. [PMID: 29600751 DOI: 10.2174/0929867325666180330093953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2017] [Revised: 11/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) are the major plasma carriers of cholesterol. However, LDL particles must undergo various molecular modifications to promote the development of atherosclerotic lesions. Modified LDL can be generated by different mechanisms, but as a common trait, show an increased electronegative charge of the LDL particle. A subfraction of LDL with increased electronegative charge (LDL(-)), which can be isolated from blood, exhibits several pro-atherogenic characteristics. LDL(-) is heterogeneous, due to its multiple origins but is strongly related to the development of atherosclerosis. Nevertheless, the implication of LDL(-) in a broad array of pathologic conditions is complex and in some cases anti-atherogenic LDL(-) properties have been reported. In fact, several molecular modifications generating LDL(-) have been widely studied, but it remains unknown as to whether these different mechanisms are specific or common to different pathological disorders. In this review, we attempt to address these issues examining the most recent findings on the biology of LDL(-) and discussing the relationship between this LDL subfraction and the development of different diseases with increased cardiovascular risk. Finally, the review highlights the importance of minor apolipoproteins associated with LDL(-) which would play a crucial role in the different properties displayed by these modified LDL particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Rivas-Urbina
- Cardiovascular Biochemistry Group, Research Institute of the Hospital de Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Barcelona, Spain.,Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola, Spain
| | - Anna Rull
- Cardiovascular Biochemistry Group, Research Institute of the Hospital de Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Barcelona, Spain.,Hospital Universitari Joan XXIII, IISPV, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Jordi Ordóñez-Llanos
- Cardiovascular Biochemistry Group, Research Institute of the Hospital de Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Barcelona, Spain.,Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola, Spain
| | - José Luis Sánchez-Quesada
- Cardiovascular Biochemistry Group, Research Institute of the Hospital de Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Barcelona, Spain.,CIBERDEM. Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid 28029, Spain
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13
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Ligi D, Benitez S, Croce L, Rivas-Urbina A, Puig N, Ordóñez-Llanos J, Mannello F, Sanchez-Quesada JL. Electronegative LDL induces MMP-9 and TIMP-1 release in monocytes through CD14 activation: Inhibitory effect of glycosaminoglycan sulodexide. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2018; 1864:3559-3567. [PMID: 30254012 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2018.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Electronegative LDL (LDL(-)) is involved in atherosclerosis through the activation of the TLR4/CD14 inflammatory pathway in monocytes. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) and their inhibitors (tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase [TIMP]) are also crucially involved in atherosclerosis, but their modulation by LDL(-) has never been investigated. The aim of this study was to examine the ability of LDL(-) to release MMPs and TIMPs in human monocytes and to determine whether sulodexide (SDX), a glycosaminoglycan-based drug, was able to affect their secretion. APPROACH AND RESULTS Native LDL (LDL(+)) and LDL(-) separated by anion-exchange chromatography were added to THP1-CD14 monocytes in the presence or absence of SDX for 24 h. A panel of 9 MMPs and 4 TIMPs was analyzed in cell supernatants with multiplex immunoassays. The gelatinolytic activity of MMP-9 was assessed by gelatin zymography. LDL(-) stimulated the release of MMP-9 (13-fold) and TIMP-1 (4-fold) in THP1-CD14 monocytes, as well as the gelatinolytic activity of MMP-9. Co-incubation of monocytes with LDL(-) and SDX for 24 h significantly reduced both the release of MMP-9 and TIMP-1 and gelatinase activity. In THP1 cells not expressing CD14, no effect of LDL(-) on MMP-9 or TIMP-1 release was observed. The uptake of DiI-labeled LDL(-) was higher than that of DiI-LDL(+) in THP1-CD14 but not in THP1 cells. This increase was inhibited by SDX. Experiments in microtiter wells coated with SDX demonstrated a specific interaction of LDL(-) with SDX. CONCLUSIONS LDL(-) induced the release of MMP-9 and TIMP-1 in monocytes through CD14. SDX affects the ability of LDL(-) to promote TIMP-1 and MMP-9 release by its interaction with LDL(-).
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Ligi
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Section of Clinical Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University Carlo Bo Urbino, Italy
| | - Sonia Benitez
- Cardiovascular Biochemistry, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), Barcelona, Spain, C/Sant Antoni M. Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain; Molecular Biology and Biochemistry Department, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB). Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Lidia Croce
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Section of Clinical Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University Carlo Bo Urbino, Italy
| | - Andrea Rivas-Urbina
- Cardiovascular Biochemistry, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), Barcelona, Spain, C/Sant Antoni M. Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain; Molecular Biology and Biochemistry Department, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB). Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Núria Puig
- Cardiovascular Biochemistry, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), Barcelona, Spain, C/Sant Antoni M. Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain; Molecular Biology and Biochemistry Department, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB). Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Jordi Ordóñez-Llanos
- Cardiovascular Biochemistry, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), Barcelona, Spain, C/Sant Antoni M. Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain; Molecular Biology and Biochemistry Department, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB). Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Ferdinando Mannello
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Section of Clinical Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University Carlo Bo Urbino, Italy.
| | - Jose Luis Sanchez-Quesada
- Cardiovascular Biochemistry, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB-Sant Pau), Barcelona, Spain, C/Sant Antoni M. Claret 167, 08025 Barcelona, Spain; CIBER of Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases (CIBERDEM).
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14
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Chu CS, Chan HC, Tsai MH, Stancel N, Lee HC, Cheng KH, Tung YC, Chan HC, Wang CY, Shin SJ, Lai WT, Yang CY, Dixon RA, Chen CH, Ke LY. Range of L5 LDL levels in healthy adults and L5's predictive power in patients with hyperlipidemia or coronary artery disease. Sci Rep 2018; 8:11866. [PMID: 30089847 PMCID: PMC6082876 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-30243-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Electronegative L5 low-density lipoprotein (LDL) level may be a useful biomarker for predicting cardiovascular disease. We determined the range of plasma L5 levels in healthy adults (n = 35) and examined the power of L5 levels to differentiate patients with coronary artery disease (CAD; n = 40) or patients with hyperlipidemia (HLP) without evidence of CAD (n = 35) from healthy adults. The percent L5 in total LDL (L5%) was quantified by using fast-protein liquid chromatography with an anion-exchange column. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was performed to determine cut-off values for L5 levels. The mean L5% and plasma concentration of L5 (ie, [L5]) were significantly higher in patients with HLP or CAD than in healthy adults (P < 0.001). The ranges of L5% and [L5] in healthy adults were determined to be <1.6% and <1.7 mg/dL, respectively. In individuals with L5% >1.6%, the odds ratio was 9.636 for HLP or CAD. In individuals with [L5] >1.7 mg/dL, the odds ratio was 17.684 for HLP or CAD. The power of L5% or [L5] to differentiate patients with HLP or CAD from healthy adults was superior to that of the LDL/high-density lipoprotein ratio. The ranges of L5% and [L5] in healthy adults determined here may be clinically useful in preventing and treating cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Sheng Chu
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University (KMU), Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Center for Lipid Biosciences, KMU Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Internal Medicine, KMU Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Hua-Chen Chan
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, KMU Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Vascular and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Ming-Hsien Tsai
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, KMU Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Nicole Stancel
- Vascular and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Hsiang-Chun Lee
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University (KMU), Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Internal Medicine, KMU Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Kai-Hung Cheng
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, KMU Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Internal Medicine, KMU Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ching Tung
- Department of Public Health and Environmental Medicine, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Hsiu-Chuan Chan
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University (KMU), Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Ya Wang
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, KMU Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Shyi-Jang Shin
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University (KMU), Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Center for Lipid Biosciences, KMU Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Internal Medicine, KMU Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Ter Lai
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University (KMU), Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Internal Medicine, KMU Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chao-Yuh Yang
- Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Richard A Dixon
- Department of Molecular Cardiology, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Chu-Huang Chen
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University (KMU), Kaohsiung, Taiwan. .,Center for Lipid Biosciences, KMU Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. .,Department of Internal Medicine, KMU Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. .,New York Heart Research Foundation, Mineola, NY, USA.
| | - Liang-Yin Ke
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University (KMU), Kaohsiung, Taiwan. .,Center for Lipid Biosciences, KMU Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. .,Department of Internal Medicine, KMU Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. .,Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
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15
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Wang YC, Lee AS, Lu LS, Ke LY, Chen WY, Dong JW, Lu J, Chen Z, Chu CS, Chan HC, Kuzan TY, Tsai MH, Hsu WL, Dixon RAF, Sawamura T, Chang KC, Chen CH. Human electronegative LDL induces mitochondrial dysfunction and premature senescence of vascular cells in vivo. Aging Cell 2018; 17:e12792. [PMID: 29923368 PMCID: PMC6052487 DOI: 10.1111/acel.12792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Dysregulation of plasma lipids is associated with age‐related cardiovascular diseases. L5, the most electronegative subfraction of chromatographically resolved low‐density lipoprotein (LDL), induces endothelial dysfunction, whereas the least electronegative subfraction, L1, does not. In this study, we examined the effects of L5 on endothelial senescence and its underlying mechanisms. C57B6/J mice were intravenously injected with L5 or L1 (2 mg kg−1 day−1) from human plasma. After 4 weeks, nuclear γH2AX deposition and senescence‐associated β‐galactosidase staining indicative of DNA damage and premature senescence, respectively, were increased in the aortic endothelium of L5‐treated but not L1‐treated mice. Similar to that, in Syrian hamsters with elevated serum L5 levels induced by a high‐fat diet, nuclear γH2AX deposition and senescence‐associated β‐galactosidase staining were increased in the aortic endothelium. This phenomenon was blocked in the presence of N‐acetyl‐cysteine (free‐radical scavenger) or caffeine (ATM blocker), as well as in lectin‐like oxidized LDL receptor‐1 (LOX‐1) knockout mice. In cultured human aortic endothelial cells, L5 augmented mitochondrial oxygen consumption and mitochondrial free‐radical production, which led to ATM activation, nuclear γH2AX deposition, Chk2 phosphorylation, and TP53 stabilization. L5 also decreased human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) protein levels and activity. Pharmacologic or genetic manipulation of the reactive oxygen species (ROS)/ATM/Chk2/TP53 pathway efficiently blocked L5‐induced endothelial senescence. In conclusion, L5 may promote mitochondrial free‐radical production and activate the DNA damage response to induce premature vascular endothelial senescence that leads to atherosclerosis. Novel therapeutic strategies that target L5‐induced endothelial senescence may be used to prevent and treat atherosclerotic vascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Chen Wang
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine; Asia University Hospital; Taichung Taiwan
- Department of Biotechnology; Asia University; Taichung Taiwan
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine; China Medical University Hospital; Taichung Taiwan
| | - An-Sheng Lee
- Department of Medicine; Mackay Medical College; New Taipei City Taiwan
- Cardiovascular Research Laboratory; China Medical University Hospital; Taichung Taiwan
| | - Long-Sheng Lu
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Materials and Tissue Engineering; College of Biomedical Engineering; Taipei Medical University; Taipei Taiwan
- International Ph.D. Program in Biomedical Engineering; College of Biomedical Engineering; Taipei Medical University; Taipei Taiwan
- Department of Radiation Oncology; Taipei Medical University Hospital; Taipei Taiwan
- Translational Laboratory; Department of Medical Research; Taipei Medical University Hospital; Taipei Taiwan
| | - Liang-Yin Ke
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology; College of Health Sciences; Kaohsiung Medical University; Kaohsiung Taiwan
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center; Kaohsiung Medical University; Kaohsiung Taiwan
| | - Wei-Yu Chen
- Department of Medicine; Mackay Medical College; New Taipei City Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences; China Medical University; Taichung Taiwan
| | - Jian-Wen Dong
- Department of Neuro-Oncology; The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center; Houston Texas
| | - Jonathan Lu
- Vascular and Medicinal Research; Texas Heart Institute; Houston Texas
| | - Zhenping Chen
- Department of Surgery; The University of Texas Medical Branch; Galveston Texas
| | - Chih-Sheng Chu
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center; Kaohsiung Medical University; Kaohsiung Taiwan
- Center for Lipid Biosciences; Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital; Kaohsiung Taiwan
- Division of Cardiology; Department of Internal Medicine; Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital; Kaohsiung Taiwan
| | - Hua-Chen Chan
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center; Kaohsiung Medical University; Kaohsiung Taiwan
- Center for Lipid Biosciences; Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital; Kaohsiung Taiwan
| | - Taha Y. Kuzan
- Department of Radiology; Marmara University Medical School; Istanbul Turkey
| | - Ming-Hsien Tsai
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center; Kaohsiung Medical University; Kaohsiung Taiwan
- Center for Lipid Biosciences; Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital; Kaohsiung Taiwan
| | - Wen-Li Hsu
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center; Kaohsiung Medical University; Kaohsiung Taiwan
| | | | - Tatsuya Sawamura
- Department of Physiology; Shinshu University School of Medicine; Matsumoto, Nagano Japan
| | - Kuan-Cheng Chang
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine; China Medical University Hospital; Taichung Taiwan
- Cardiovascular Research Laboratory; China Medical University Hospital; Taichung Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences; China Medical University; Taichung Taiwan
| | - Chu-Huang Chen
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center; Kaohsiung Medical University; Kaohsiung Taiwan
- Vascular and Medicinal Research; Texas Heart Institute; Houston Texas
- Center for Lipid Biosciences; Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital; Kaohsiung Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Medicine; College of Medicine; Kaohsiung Medical University; Kaohsiung Taiwan
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16
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Ke LY, Chan HC, Chan HC, Kalu FCU, Lee HC, Lin IL, Jhuo SJ, Lai WT, Tsao CR, Sawamura T, Dixon RA, Chen CH, Chu CS, Shin SJ. Electronegative Low-Density Lipoprotein L5 Induces Adipose Tissue Inflammation Associated With Metabolic Syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2017; 102:4615-4625. [PMID: 29029093 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2017-01657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Electronegative low-density lipoprotein (LDL) L5 is a naturally occurring, atherogenic entity found at elevated levels in the plasma of patients with metabolic syndrome (MetS) in the absence of elevated plasma LDL levels. OBJECTIVE To investigate the role of L5 in the mechanism of adipose tissue inflammation associated with MetS. PATIENTS/SETTING Plasma LDL isolated from patients with MetS (n = 29) and controls (n = 29) with similar plasma LDL levels was separated into five subfractions, L1 to L5, with increasing electronegativity. DESIGN We examined the invivo effects of L5 on adipose tissue in mice and the in vitro effects of L5 on adipocytokine signaling and monocytes. RESULTS Tail-vein injection of human L5 but not L1 into C57BL/6 mice induced the accumulation of F4/80+ and CD11c+ M1 macrophages. The effects of L5 were attenuated in mice deficient for L5's receptor, lectin-like oxidized LDL receptor 1 (LOX-1). L5 but not L1 induced human adipocytes to release inflammatory adipocytokines. Incubating human THP-1 monocytes with LDL-free culture media from L5-treated adipocytes enhanced the migration of monocytes by 300-fold (P < 0.001 vs L1-treated adipocyte media)-effects that were attenuated by LOX-1 neutralizing antibody. Migrated cells were positive for mature macrophage marker PM-2K, indicating the transformation of monocytes into macrophages. The infiltration of M1 macrophages in adipose tissue was also observed in a previously established hamster model of endogenously elevated L5. CONCLUSIONS L5 induces adipose inflammation through LOX-1 by promoting macrophage maturation and infiltration into adipose tissue. Elevated plasma L5 levels may be a novel etiology of adipose tissue inflammation in patients with MetS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang-Yin Ke
- Vascular and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan
| | - Hua-Chen Chan
- Vascular and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan
| | - Hsiu-Chuan Chan
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan
| | - Franklin Chikodi Udo Kalu
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan
| | - Hsiang-Chun Lee
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan
| | - I-Ling Lin
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Jie Jhuo
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Ter Lai
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan
| | - Chen-Rong Tsao
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Feng Yuan Hospital, Ministry of Health, Taiwan
| | - Tatsuya Sawamura
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Shinshu University, Japan
| | | | - Chu-Huang Chen
- Vascular and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan
- New York Heart Research Foundation
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Sheng Chu
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan
| | - Shyi-Jang Shin
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Taiwan
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan
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17
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Lee AS, Xi Y, Lai CH, Chen WY, Peng HY, Chan HC, Chen CH, Chang KC. Human electronegative low-density lipoprotein modulates cardiac repolarization via LOX-1-mediated alteration of sarcolemmal ion channels. Sci Rep 2017; 7:10889. [PMID: 28883612 PMCID: PMC5589822 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-10503-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Dyslipidemia is associated with greater risk of ventricular tachyarrhythmias in patients with cardiovascular diseases. We aimed to examine whether the most electronegative subfraction of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), L5, is correlated with QTc prolongation in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) and investigate the effects of human L5 on the electrophysiological properties of cardiomyocytes in relation to the lectin-like oxidized LDL receptor (LOX-1). L5 was isolated from the plasma of 40 patients with angiography documented CAD and 13 patients with no CAD to correlate the QTc interval respectively. The mean concentration of L5 was higher and correlated with QTc in patients with CAD compared to controls. To examine the direct effect of L5 on QTc, mice were intravenously injected with L5 or L1. L5-injected wild-type but not LOX-1−/− mice showed longer QTc compared to L1-injected animals in vivo with corresponding longer action potential duration (APD) in cardiomyocytes incubated with L5 in vitro. The APD prolongation was mediated by an increase of L-type calcium current and a decrease of transient outward potassium current. We show that L5 was positively correlated with QTc prolongation in patients with ischemic heart disease. L5 can modulate cardiac repolarization via LOX-1-mediated alteration sarcolemmal ionic currents.
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Affiliation(s)
- An-Sheng Lee
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei, Taiwan.,Cardiovascular Research Laboratory, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Yutao Xi
- Texas Heart Institute/St. Luke's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Chin-Hu Lai
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan.,Department of Surgery, Taichung Armed Forces General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Yu Chen
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Hsien-Yu Peng
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hua-Chen Chan
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chu-Huang Chen
- Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. .,Vascular and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, TX, USA. .,Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. .,Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
| | - Kuan-Cheng Chang
- Cardiovascular Research Laboratory, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan. .,Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan. .,Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan.
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18
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Orekhov AN, Ivanova EA, Melnichenko AA, Sobenin IA. Circulating desialylated low density lipoprotein. COR ET VASA 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crvasa.2016.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Akyol S, Lu J, Akyol O, Akcay F, Armutcu F, Ke LY, Chen CH. The role of electronegative low-density lipoprotein in cardiovascular diseases and its therapeutic implications. Trends Cardiovasc Med 2016; 27:239-246. [PMID: 28040327 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcm.2016.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2016] [Revised: 11/01/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a health problem of great concern to both the public and medical authorities. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) has been reported to play an important role in both the development and progression of CVD, but studies are underway to determine how LDL exerts its effects. In recent years, it has been found that LDL has several subfractions, each of which affects endothelial function differently; L5, the most electronegative fraction, has been shown to be unique in that it induces an atherogenic response. This review examines the current knowledge concerning the relationships between L5 and CVD and highlights the role of L5 in the pathophysiology of CVD, especially with regards to atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumeyya Akyol
- Vascular & Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, 6770 Bertner Avenue, MC 2-255, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Turgut Ozal University, Ankara, Turkey.
| | - Jonathan Lu
- Vascular & Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, 6770 Bertner Avenue, MC 2-255, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Omer Akyol
- Vascular & Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, 6770 Bertner Avenue, MC 2-255, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Fatih Akcay
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Ferah Armutcu
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Cerrahpasa Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Liang-Yin Ke
- Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
| | - Chu-Huang Chen
- Vascular & Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, 6770 Bertner Avenue, MC 2-255, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Lipid Science and Aging Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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Ke LY, Chan HC, Chen CC, Lu J, Marathe GK, Chu CS, Chan HC, Wang CY, Tung YC, McIntyre TM, Yen JH, Chen CH. Enhanced Sphingomyelinase Activity Contributes to the Apoptotic Capacity of Electronegative Low-Density Lipoprotein. J Med Chem 2016; 59:1032-40. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5b01534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Liang-Yin Ke
- Vascular
and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Hua-Chen Chan
- Vascular
and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Chih-Chieh Chen
- Institute
of Medical Science and Technology, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan 80424
| | - Jonathan Lu
- Vascular
and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Gopal K. Marathe
- Departments of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44195, United States
- Department
of Studies in Biochemistry, Manasagangothri, University of Mysore, Mysore-570006, India
| | | | | | | | | | - Thomas M. McIntyre
- Departments of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44195, United States
| | | | - Chu-Huang Chen
- Vascular
and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
- New York Heart Research
Foundation, Mineola, New York 11501, United States
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Chang KC, Lee AS, Chen WY, Lin YN, Hsu JF, Chan HC, Chang CM, Chang SS, Pan CC, Sawamura T, Chang CT, Su MJ, Chen CH. Increased LDL electronegativity in chronic kidney disease disrupts calcium homeostasis resulting in cardiac dysfunction. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2015; 84:36-44. [PMID: 25871829 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2015.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Revised: 03/27/2015] [Accepted: 03/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Chronic kidney disease (CKD), an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease, is associated with abnormal lipoprotein metabolism. We examined whether electronegative low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is mechanistically linked to cardiac dysfunction in patients with early CKD. We compared echocardiographic parameters between patients with stage 2 CKD (n = 88) and normal controls (n = 89) and found that impaired relaxation was more common in CKD patients. Reduction in estimated glomerular filtration rate was an independent predictor of left ventricular relaxation dysfunction. We then examined cardiac function in a rat model of early CKD induced by unilateral nephrectomy (UNx) by analyzing pressure-volume loop data. The time constant of isovolumic pressure decay was longer and the maximal velocity of pressure fall was slower in UNx rats than in controls. When we investigated the mechanisms underlying relaxation dysfunction, we found that LDL from CKD patients and UNx rats was more electronegative than LDL from their respective controls and that LDL from UNx rats induced intracellular calcium overload in H9c2 cardiomyocytes in vitro. Furthermore, chronic administration of electronegative LDL, which signals through lectin-like oxidized LDL receptor-1 (LOX-1), induced relaxation dysfunction in wild-type but not LOX-1(-/-) mice. In in vitro and in vivo experiments, impaired cardiac relaxation was associated with increased calcium transient resulting from nitric oxide (NO)-dependent nitrosylation of SERCA2a due to increases in inducible NO synthase expression and endothelial NO synthase uncoupling. In conclusion, LDL becomes more electronegative in early CKD. This change disrupts SERCA2a-regulated calcium homeostasis, which may be the mechanism underlying cardiorenal syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuan-Cheng Chang
- Division of Cardiology, China Medical University (CMU) Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Clinical Medical Science, CMU, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - An-Sheng Lee
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei, Taiwan; L5 Research Center, CMU Hospital, CMU, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Yu Chen
- L5 Research Center, CMU Hospital, CMU, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Nien Lin
- Division of Cardiology, China Medical University (CMU) Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Jing-Fang Hsu
- L5 Research Center, CMU Hospital, CMU, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Hua-Chen Chan
- L5 Research Center, CMU Hospital, CMU, Taichung, Taiwan; Center for Lipid Biosciences, Kaohsiung Medical University (KMU) Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | | | - Shih-Sheng Chang
- Division of Cardiology, China Medical University (CMU) Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Chi Pan
- L5 Research Center, CMU Hospital, CMU, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Tatsuya Sawamura
- Department of Physiology, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto, Nagano, Japan
| | | | - Ming-Jai Su
- Graduate Institute of Pharmacology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - Chu-Huang Chen
- L5 Research Center, CMU Hospital, CMU, Taichung, Taiwan; Vascular and Medicinal Research, Texas Heart Institute, Houston, TX, USA; Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Center for Lipid and Glycomedicine Research, KMU Hospital, KMU, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
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