Echocardiography in Pregnancy: Part 1

Pulmonary Embolism in Pregnancy: A Review for Clinical Practitioners

Diagnostic and therapeutic decision-making in pregnancy with suspected pulmonary embolism (PE) is challenging. European and other international professional societies have proposed various recommendations that are ambiguous, probably due to the unavailability of randomized controlled trials. In the following sections, we discuss the supporting diagnostic steps and treatments. We suggest a standardized diagnostic work-up in pregnant patients presenting with symptoms of PE to make evidence-based diagnostic and therapeutic decisions. We strongly recommend that clinical decisions on treatment in pregnant patients with intermediate- or high-risk pulmonary embolism should include a multidisciplinary team approach involving emergency physicians, pulmonologists, angiologist, cardiologists, thoracic and/or cardiovascular surgeons, radiologists, and obstetricians to choose a tailored management option including an interventional treatment. It is important to be aware of the differences among guidelines and to assess each case individually, considering the specific views of the different specialties. This review summarizes key concepts of the diagnostics and acute management of pregnant women with suspected PE that are supportive for the clinician on duty.

Management of Friedreich Ataxia-Associated Cardiomyopathy in Pregnancy: A Review of the Literature

A major manifestation of Friedreich ataxia (FRDA) is cardiomyopathy, caused by mitochondrial proliferation in myocytes. Because the lifespan for patients with FRDA improves with better treatment modalities, more patients are becoming pregnant, meaning that more medical providers must know how to care for this population. This report provides a review of the literature on multidisciplinary management of pregnant patients with FRDA and cardiomyopathy from preconception through lactation. A cardio-obstetrics team, including cardiology, anesthesiology, and obstetrics, should be involved for this entire period. All patients should be counseled on pregnancy risk using elements of existing stratification systems, and contraception should be discussed, highlighting the safety of intrauterine devices. Electrocardiogram should be obtained at baseline and each trimester, looking for atrial arrhythmias and ST-segment changes, as should transthoracic echocardiogram, with a focus on left ventricular ejection fraction-which is typically normal in FRDA cardiomyopathy-and relative wall thickness and global longitudinal strain-which tend to decrease as cardiomyopathy progresses. Brain natriuretic peptide is also a helpful marker to detect adverse events. If heart failure develops, it should be treated like any other etiology of heart failure during pregnancy. Atrial arrhythmias should be treated with β blockers or electrical cardioversion and anticoagulation, as necessary. Most patients with FRDA can deliver vaginally, and neuraxial analgesia is recommended during labor because of the risks associated with general anesthesia. Breastfeeding is encouraged, even for those taking cardiac medications.

A Four-Dimensional Volumetric Quantification of the Left Ventricle in Healthy Pregnant Women in the Third Trimester

BACKGROUND

Hemodynamic load and heart structural remodeling rise during pregnancy because these changes are physiologically necessary. Adaptations in the mother's circulatory system may either initiate or aggravate the development of cardiovascular disease in the offspring. If the body is unable to adjust to these changes, it may develop heart conditions like cardiomyopathy. There is a lack of third-trimester echocardiographic data on left ventricular (LV) volume and function in healthy Iraqi women. To understand the cardiac alterations that occur during normal pregnancy, a precise tool that evaluates cardiac function is needed. In that regard, the four-dimensional echocardiography (4DE) technique has markedly improved the quality and accuracy of assessing the size and function of the left ventricle.

AIM

The present study aimed to assess LV volume and function in the third trimester of a healthy pregnancy using 4DE and to compare the results of LV assessment using 4DE with those of LV assessment using conventional two-dimensional (2D) echocardiography.

METHODS

The study was conducted on 75 healthy pregnant women (the case group) and 75 non-pregnant women (the control group). The participants attended Al-Fortat Teaching Hospital from April 1, 2022, to May 30, 2023, and had 2D and 4D echocardiographic studies performed on them.

RESULTS

The LV end-diastolic volume (EDV), end-systolic volume (ESV), and cardiac output (CO) were significantly increased in the case group compared to the control group (90.87 ± 18.03 ml vs. 62.64 ± 14.11 ml, P<0.001; 35.59 ± 6.52 ml vs. 22.42 ± 5.82 ml, P<0.001; and 4.87 ± 1.27 vs. 3.35 ± 0.87 L/m, P<0.001, respectively). In contrast, the LV ejection fraction (LVEF) was significantly decreased in the pregnant group compared to the control group (60.37 ± 5.42 % vs. 64.04 ± 4.99 %, P<0.01). Additionally, the study showed significant differences in EDV, ESV, ejection fraction (EF%), and CO (P<0.001) between 2D and 4D echocardiography, according to the Bland Altman test.

CONCLUSION

In healthy pregnant women in their third trimester, there is an increase in the indicators of preload (ventricular volume and CO) and a decrease in EF%. The 4DE provides detailed images and information about cardiac volumes and function, allowing for the early detection of any potential problems that may arise during pregnancy and thus improving the health outcomes of both the mother and the developing fetus.

Cardio-Obstetrics: A Focused Review

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of maternal mortality in the USA. All cardiovascular care providers should have a foundational knowledge on the management of pregnant individuals with heart disease. This focused review touches on several key cardio-obstetric themes.

RECENT FINDINGS

Many individuals with cardiovascular disease can safely undergo pregnancy, but should have counseling preconception to optimize cardiac status. There are several cardiovascular conditions that are high risk for maternal mortality and morbidity. These individuals should be adequately counseled preconception and offered reliable birth control. The approach to a high-risk pregnant patient with cardiac disease is best managed by a multidisciplinary team to address potential maternal and fetal complications. Identification of at risk individuals can be estimated preconception with several risk scores. The development of risk scores to stratify and identify those at elevated risk during pregnancy is an area of continued research and development.

Levels of serum podocalyxin in preeclampsia and relationship with maternal echocardiographic and Doppler ultrasound parameters

INTRODUCTION

Podocalyxin (PCX) is an indicator of glomerular injury. Aside from the kidney, it is expressed in the endothelial cells of various organs. Echographic examinations are useful in assessing the alterations in cardiovascular structure and function during pregnancy.

Acute Myocardial Infarction in Pregnancy

Cardiovascular disease, and particularly ischemic heart disease, is a leading cause of maternal morbidity and mortality in high-income countries. The incidence of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) has been rising over the past two decades due to increasing maternal age and a higher prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in the pregnant population. Causes of AMI in pregnancy are diverse and may require specific considerations for their diagnosis and management. In this narrative review, we provide an overview of physiologic changes, risk factors, and etiologies leading to AMI in pregnancy, as well as diagnostic tools, reperfusion strategies, and pharmacological treatments for this complex population. In addition, we outline considerations for labor and delivery planning and long-term follow-up of patients with AMI in pregnancy.

Maternal left ventricular function and adverse neonatal outcomes in women with cardiac disease

Purpose

To evaluate the relationship between maternal left ventricular systolic function, utero-placental circulation, and risk of adverse neonatal outcomes in women with cardiac disease.

Methods

119 women managed in the pregnancy heart clinic (2019–2021) were identified. Women were classified by their primary cardiac condition. Adverse neonatal outcomes were: low birth weight (< 2500 g), small-for-gestational-age (< 10th birth-weight centile), pre-term delivery (< 37 weeks’ gestation), and fetal demise (> 20 weeks’ gestation). Parameters of left ventricular systolic function (global longitudinal strain, radial strain, ejection fraction, average S’, and cardiac output) were calculated and pulsatility index was recorded from last growth scan.

Results

Adverse neonatal outcomes occurred in 28 neonates (24%); most frequently in valvular heart disease (n = 8) and cardiomyopathy (n = 7). Small-for-gestational-age neonates were most common in women with cardiomyopathy (p = 0.016). Early pregnancy average S’ (p = 0.03), late pregnancy average S’ (p = 0.02), and late pregnancy cardiac output (p = 0.008) were significantly lower in women with adverse neonatal outcomes than in those with healthy neonates. There was a significant association between neonatal birth-weight centile and global longitudinal strain (p = 0.04) and cardiac output (p = 0.0002) in late pregnancy. Pulsatility index was highest in women with cardiomyopathy (p = 0.007), and correlated with average S’ (p < 0.0001) and global longitudinal strain (p = 0.03) in late pregnancy.

Conclusion

Women with cardiac disease may not tolerate cardiovascular adaptations required during pregnancy to support fetal growth. Adverse neonatal outcomes were associated with reduced left ventricular systolic function and higher pulsatility index. The association between impaired systolic function and reduced fetal growth is supported by insufficient utero-placental circulation.

Diagnosis and management of arrhythmias in pregnancy

Arrhythmias are the most common cardiac complications occurring in pregnancy. Although the majority of palpitations in pregnancy may be explained by atrial or ventricular premature complexes, the full spectrum of arrhythmias can occur. In this article, we establish a systematic approach to the evaluation and management of arrhythmias in pregnancy. Haemodynamically unstable arrhythmias warrant urgent cardioversion. For mild cases of benign arrhythmia, treatment is usually not needed. Symptomatic but haemodynamically stable arrhythmic patients should first undergo a thorough evaluation to establish the type of arrhythmia and the presence or absence of structural heart disease. This will ultimately determine the necessity for treatment given the potential risks of anti-arrhythmic pharmacotherapy in pregnancy. We will discuss the main catalogue of anti-arrhythmic medications, which have some established evidence of safety in pregnancy. Based on our appraisal, we provide a treatment algorithm for the tachyarrhythmic pregnant patient.

Managing Rheumatic Heart Disease in Pregnancy: A Practical Evidence-Based Multidisciplinary Approach

Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) remains a leading cause of mortality and morbidity in pregnant patients in low- to middle-income countries. Apart from the clinical challenges, these areas face poor infrastructure and resources to allow for early detection, with many women presenting to medical services for the first time when they deteriorate clinically during the pregnancy. The opportunity for preconception counselling and planning may thus be lost. It is ideal for all women to be seen before conception and risk-stratified according to their clinical state and pathology. The role of the cardio-obstetrics team has emerged over the past decade with the aim of a seamless transition to and from the appropriate levels of care during pregnancy. Severe symptomatic mitral and aortic valve stenoses portend the greatest risk to both mother and fetus. In mitral stenosis, beta-blockers are the cornerstone of therapy and only a small number of patients require balloon valvuloplasty. Regurgitant lesions mostly require diuretics alone for the treatment of heart failure. The mode of delivery is usually vaginal; caesarean section is performed in those with obstetrical indications or in cases with severe stenosis and a poor clinical state. The postpartum period presents a second high-risk period for maternal adverse events, with heart failure and arrhythmias being the most frequent. This review aims to provide a practical evidence-based multi-disciplinary approach to the management of women with RHD in pregnancy.

Cardiovascular Testing and Imaging in Pregnant Women

Cardiovascular disease is a major contributor to maternal morbidity and mortality and frequently preventable. Women with known cardiovascular disease should undergo cardiac evaluation before pregnancy. Many women with pregnancy-associated cardiac complications are not previously known to have cardiac disease. Women at high risk or who have signs or symptoms suggestive of heart failure, angina, or arrhythmias should undergo prompt evaluation. This article describes various diagnostic imaging modalities that can be used in pregnancy, including indications, strengths, and limitations.

Echocardiographic screening of pregnant women by non-physicians with remote interpretation in primary care

BACKGROUND

Impact of heart disease (HD) on pregnancy is significant.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to evaluate the feasibility of integrating screening echocardiography (echo) into the Brazilian prenatal primary care to assess HD prevalence.

METHODS

Over 13 months, 20 healthcare workers acquired simplified echo protocols, utilizing hand-held machines (GE-VSCAN), in 22 primary care centres. Consecutive pregnant women unaware of HD underwent focused echo, remotely interpreted in USA and Brazil. Major HD was defined as structural valve abnormalities, more than mild valve dysfunction, ventricular systolic dysfunction/hypertrophy, or other major abnormalities. Screen-positive women were referred for standard echo.

RESULTS

At total, 1 112 women underwent screening. Mean age was 27 ± 8 years, mean gestational age 22 ± 9 weeks. Major HD was found in 100 (9.0%) patients. More than mild mitral regurgitation was observed in 47 (4.2%), tricuspid regurgitation in 11 (1.0%), mild left ventricular dysfunction in 4 (0.4%), left ventricular hypertrophy in 2 (0.2%) and suspected rheumatic heart disease in 36 (3.2%): all, with mitral valve and two with aortic valve (AV) involvement. Other AV disease was observed in 11 (10%). In 56 screen-positive women undergoing standard echo, major HD was confirmed in 45 (80.4%): RHD findings in 12 patients (all with mitral valve and two with AV disease), mitral regurgitation in 40 (14 with morphological changes, 10 suggestive of rheumatic heart disease), other AV disease in two (mild/moderate regurgitation).

CONCLUSIONS

Integration of echo screening into primary prenatal care is feasible in Brazil. However, the low prevalence of severe disease urges further investigations about the effectiveness of the strategy.

Echocardiography for the Pregnant Heart

Purpose of review

Pregnancy is associated with significant hemodynamic changes, making it a potentially high-risk period for women with underlying cardiovascular disease. Echocardiography remains the preferred modality for diagnosis and monitoring of pregnant women with cardiovascular disease as it is widely available and does not require radiation. This paper reviews the role of echocardiography along the continuum of pregnancy in at-risk patients, with a focus on key cardiac disease states in pregnancy.

Recent findings

In the preconception stage, risk stratification scores such as CARPREG II, ZAHARA and the modified WHO remain central to counseling and planning. As such, echocardiography serves an important role in assessing the severity of pre-existing structural disease. Among women with pre-existing cardiovascular disease who become pregnant-as well as those who develop cardiovascular symptoms during pregnancy-echocardiography is a key imaging tool for assessment of hemodynamic and structural changes and is recommended as the first-line imaging modality when appropriate by both the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). However, routine screening intervals during pregnancy for various cardiac lesions are not well defined, resulting in clinical heterogeneity in care.

Summary

Echocardiography is the imaging modality of choice for defining, risk stratifying, and monitoring cardiovascular changes throughout pregnancy. Once identified, at-risk patients should receive careful individual counseling and follow-up with a multidisciplinary team. Echocardiography serves as a widely available tool for serial monitoring of pregnant women with cardiovascular disease throughout pregnancy and the postpartum period.

Longitudinal changes in maternal left atrial volume index and uterine artery pulsatility indices in uncomplicated pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Data on the relationship between longitudinal changes in maternal volume-dependent echocardiographic parameters and placentation in uncomplicated pregnancy are limited.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate changes in volume-dependent echocardiographic parameters in uncomplicated pregnancy to test the hypothesis of the existence of an association between volume-dependent echocardiographic parameters and Doppler ultrasound parameters of fetal circulation and the uterine artery in uncomplicated pregnancy and to establish which of the volume-dependent echocardiographic parameters best depicts volume changes and correlates best with Doppler ultrasound of fetal circulation and the uterine artery in healthy pregnancy.

STUDY DESIGN

Data from 60 healthy pregnant women were analyzed. A complete echocardiographic study was performed at 11 to 13, 20 to 22, and 30 to 32 weeks' gestation: left ventricular end-diastolic volume, early diastolic peak flow velocity, late diastolic peak flow velocity, left atrial area, and left atrial volume index were assessed. Obstetrical assessment was performed including fetal growth and uterine artery pulsatility index. Fetal well-being was assessed by umbilical and middle cerebral artery blood flow. Serum pregnancy-associated plasma protein A and free β-human chorionic gonadotropin were assessed during the routine first-trimester scan (11-13 weeks' gestation).

RESULTS

Left ventricular end-diastolic volume and left atrial area increased significantly between 11 to 13 and 20 to 22 weeks' gestation but not between 20 to 22 and 30 to 32 weeks' gestation. Left atrial volume index measured at 30 to 32 weeks' gestation correlated with uterine artery pulsatility indices in 3 trimesters. Changes in the left atrial volume index between the third and first trimesters correlated significantly with the uterine artery pulsatility index measured at 20 to 22 weeks' gestation (r=-0.345; P=.020) and at 30 to 32 weeks' gestation (r=-0.452; P=.002). Changes in the left atrial volume index between the second and first trimesters significantly correlated with the uterine artery pulsatility index measured in the first trimester (r=-0.316; P=.025).

CONCLUSION

Our study showed that in an uncomplicated pregnancy, among volume-dependent echocardiographic parameters, left atrial volume index increased between both the first and second trimesters and the second and third trimesters and correlated with parameters of Doppler ultrasound of the fetal circulation and the uterine artery. Our results expand on the previous observation on the relationship between maternal cardiovascular adaptation and placentation in women with heart diseases to the population of healthy women with uncomplicated pregnancy.

Evaluation and Diagnostic Testing

The evaluation of cardiovascular disease in pregnancy is challenging due to overlaps between cardiac and normal pregnancy symptomatology, as well as concerns about the potential impact, if any, of imaging studies on fetal development. We discuss here an approach to the evaluation of the pregnant cardiac patient and review the safety and utility of available diagnostic tests, including labs, electrocardiogram, echocardiography, stress testing, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and cardiac catheterization. Importantly, the majority of standard imaging studies can be safely performed in pregnancy, and a high index of suspicion must be maintained when evaluating pregnant patients, especially those with preexisting cardiovascular disease.

Management of reproductive health in patients with pulmonary hypertension

Pulmonary hypertension is characterized by elevated pulmonary artery pressure caused by several clinical conditions that affect pulmonary vasculature. Morbidity and death in this condition are related to the development of right ventricular failure. Normal physiologic changes that occur in pregnancy to support the growing fetus can pose hemodynamic challenges to the pregnant patient with pulmonary hypertension that results in increased morbidity and mortality rates. Current guidelines recommend that patients with known pulmonary hypertension be counseled against pregnancy. This review aims to provide clinicians with guidelines for preconception counseling, medication management, and delivery planning.

The Use of Echocardiography and Advanced Cardiac Ultrasonography During Pregnancy

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Pregnancy is a time of significant cardiovascular change. Echocardiography is the primary imaging modality used to assess cardiovascular anatomy and physiology during pregnancy. Both two-dimensional (2D) echocardiography and advanced cardiac ultrasound modalities play pivotal roles in identifying and monitoring these changes, especially in women with preexisting or new cardiac disease. This paper reviews the role of echocardiography and advanced cardiac ultrasound during normal pregnancy and pregnancy complicated by hypertensive disorders, valvular disorders, and cardiomyopathy. It also examines the role of echocardiography in guiding decisions about delivery.

RECENT FINDINGS

The data establishing normal echo parameters during pregnancy are inconsistent. In addition, there is limited research exploring the role of advanced cardiac ultrasound modalities, such as tissue Doppler imaging or speckle tracking echocardiography, in assessing cardiac function during pregnancy. What data there are suggest that these advanced modalities can be used to identify subclinical changes before traditional echocardiography can, and thus have clear utility in identifying early abnormal cardiac responses to pregnancy. Echocardiography is the modality of choice for imaging the heart in pregnant women. Advanced ultrasound modalities increasingly play a role in identifying abnormal adaptations to pregnancy and detecting subclinical changes. This, in turn, can help promote a healthy pregnancy for both mother and fetus.

Pre-eclampsia through the eyes of the obstetrician and anesthesiologist

Due to the high risk of morbidity and mortality from unrecognized and untreated pre-eclampsia, clinicians should have a high index of suspicion to evaluate, treat and monitor patients presenting with signs concerning for pre-eclampsia. Early blood pressure management and seizure prophylaxis during labor are critical for maternal safety. Intrapartum, special anesthetic considerations should be employed to ensure the safety of the parturient and fetus. Patients who have pre-eclampsia should be aware that they are at high risk for the future development of cardiovascular disease.

Echocardiographic Techniques of Deformation Imaging in the Evaluation of Maternal Cardiovascular System in Patients with Complicated Pregnancies

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) represent the leading cause of maternal mortality and morbidity. Knowledge of CVD in women is constantly evolving and data are emerging that female-specific risk factors as complications of pregnancy are conditions associated with an increased risk for the long-term development of CVD. Echocardiography is a safe and effective imaging technique indicated in symptomatic or asymptomatic pregnant women with congenital heart diseases who require close monitoring of cardiac function. Deformation imaging is an echocardiographic technique used to assess myocardial function by measuring the actual deformation of the myocardium through the cardiac cycle. Speckle-tracking echocardiography (STE) is a two-dimensional (2D) technique which has been found to be more accurate than tissue Doppler to assess both left ventricular (LV) and right ventricular (RV) myocardial function. The use of 2D STE however might present some technical issues due to the tomographic nature of the technique and the motion in the three-dimensional space of the myocardial speckles. This has promoted the use of 3D STE to track the motion of the speckles in the 3D space. This review will focus on the clinical value of the new echocardiographic techniques of deformation imaging used to assess the maternal cardiovascular system in complicated pregnancies.