Diabetes and female sexual dysfunction: moving beyond "benign neglect"

Spectrum of Diabetic Neuropathy: New Insights in Diagnosis and Treatment

Diabetic neuropathy is a highly prevalent complication of diabetes. It consists of a broad range of neuropathic conditions, such as distal symmetric polyneuropathy and various forms of autonomic neuropathies involving the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and urogenital systems. Prevention or diagnosis in early stages of disease is crucial to prevent symptomatic onset and progression, particularly in the absence of current disease-modifying therapies. In this review, we describe the four main types of diabetic neuropathy. We review current understanding with respect to diagnosis and treatment while highlighting knowledge gaps and future directions.

Physical Activity Protects Women with Type 1 Diabetes from Sexual Dysfunctions

The aim of the study was to evaluate the relationship between physical activity and sexual function in women with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). The study group consisted of 171 women with T1DM. All the participants voluntarily filled out anonymous questionnaires. Women who were sexually inactive or had some psychological, psychiatric, or endocrine diseases were excluded from the analysis. The scores about sexual function were obtained using a Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) questionnaire. Results equal to or below 26 points indicate clinically significant sexual dysfunction. Physical activity was measured by the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ). Participants were divided into two groups depending on the Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET-min/week) score with a cutoff point 3000 MET-min/week. Results above 3000 points indicate higher physical activity in woman. There were statistically significant differences in lubrication, orgasm, pain, satisfaction, and total score of FSFI. A positive correlation was revealed between results in total FSFI score and MET-min/week score (Rs = 0.18, p = 0.016). Univariate logistic regression does not show significant associations, but the multivariate logistic regression model shows an association between the MET-min/week and the total FSFI score. The higher the MET-min/week score, the higher the FSI score, and thus better sexual function.

Urologic complications in diabetes

Urologic complications such as bladder and sexual dysfunction among men and women with diabetes have received relatively little attention. This is despite emerging evidence that demonstrates that urologic complications increase with age in the general population and are more common in individuals with diabetes compared to those without diabetes. Here we summarize the latest information about the epidemiology of urologic complications in the setting of diabetes and the most recent findings regarding pathophysiology. In addition, we identify knowledge gaps and need for future funding to address these gaps that will reduce the burden of urologic complications in diabetes and optimize quality of life for all individuals affected by it.

Evaluation of sexual dysfunction and female sexual dysfunction indicators in women with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Type 2 diabetes is one of the most common chronic diseases worldwide, and one of the long-term complications of this disease is sexual dysfunction in women with type 2 diabetes, which has been studied in fewer studies. The aim of this study is to determine the overall prevalence of sexual dysfunction in women with type 2 diabetes and its indicators with systematic and meta-analysis approach. The present meta-analysis study reviewed articles published foreign journals by searching the MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, Science direct, Embase, Proquest and Persian databases, including Iranmedex, Magiran, and SID between January 2000 to December 2018. The heterogeneity of studies was studied using the I2 index and data analysis was carried out in Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software. The Meta-analysis review of 25 studies and 3892 individuals aged 70-18 years showed that the overall prevalence of sexual dysfunction in women with type 2 diabetes was 68.6% (95% CI 61.1-75.3%). The highest and lowest prevalence of sexual dysfunction was 94.4% in Iranian women with type 2 diabetes (95% CI 91.9%-96.3%) in 2014 and 17% in Italian women with diabetes Type 2 (95% CI 6.4-36.9%) in 2015. Results of meta-regression showed that with the increase in sample size and year of study, the overall prevalence of sexual dysfunction decreased and increased, respectively and the differences were statistically significant (P < 0.05). Regarding the high prevalence of sexual dysfunction in women with type 2 diabetes, health policymakers need to take appropriate measures to address this disorder in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Sexual Dysfunction Is a More Common Problem in Young Women with Type 1 Diabetes than in Healthy Women

The aim of the study was to analyze the relationship between the presence of type 1 diabetes and sexual dysfunction among young women. The study group consisted of 230 women, including 70 healthy and 160 with diabetes mellitus type 1 (DM1). All the participants voluntarily filled anonymous questionnaire. The results regarding sexual function were obtained using a Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) questionnaire. Statistical analysis was performed for sexually active people. In the study group, 180 women declared sexual activity: 62 healthy (88%) and 118 with DM1 (82.5%). Women with DM1 in comparison with healthy women were older, had higher BMI, weight, and had more pack-years of cigarette smoking. Women with DM1 had lower results in FSFI and more often achieved scores below the clinical cutoff point. In a multiple linear regression model, the presence of diabetes predicted lower FSFI results. DM1 is independently associated with the presence of impaired sexual function. Sexual dysfunctions are more common among young women with DM1 than in healthy controls. The relationship is significant despite of the age, duration of diabetes, body weight, and presence of angiopathy.

Ultrastructural Study of Clitoral Cavernous Tissue and Clitoral Blood Flow From Type 1 Diabetic Premenopausal Women on Phosphodiesterase-5 Inhibitor

BACKGROUND

The effects of phosphodiesterase-type 5 (PDE5) inhibitors on the in vivo clitoral structure of women with diabetes have never been investigated.

AIM

To study the in vivo structural and hemodynamic changes of the clitoris in premenopausal women with type 1 diabetes on PDE5 inhibitors.

METHODS

38 premenopausal women with type 1 diabetes aged 36 -46 years. A randomized 1:1 study design was used: Study Group (group A) on Tadalafil 5 mg daily, and control group (group B). Blood samples were taken from each woman to measure HbA1c, testosterone, and Free Androgen Index. The women underwent microbiopsy of the clitoral body by means of semiautomatic gun during total anesthesia for surgery therapy of a benign gynecological pathology. The tissue removed was processed for electron microscopy. Translabial color Doppler ultrasound was used to measure the peak systolic velocity (PSV), the end diastolic velocity (EDV), and the pulsatility index (PI) of clitoral arteries.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Micro-ultrastructure observation of clitoral tissue and color Doppler sonography of clitoral blood flow.

RESULTS

Of the 38 women, 13 (68.4%) of group A and 15 (78.9%) of group B completed the study. Group A showed a mean PSV and EDV increase, and a mean PI decrease with respect to baseline (P < .001). Group B did not show any change in both the parameters (P = NS). By a quantitative study in both groups a variable degree of ultrastructural abnormalities of smooth muscle cells (SMCs) was observed, consisting in increased glycogen and lipoic deposits, cytoplasmic vacuoles, and focal increase of electron density of SMCs. Moreover, the mean SMC thickness of group A (1.83 ± 0.68 µm) was larger than that of group B (1.3 ± 0.41 µm) (P = .02).

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

PDE5 inhibitors could be used to treat diabetic women with genital arousal disorder.

STRENGTHS & LIMITATIONS

The study shows a clear effect of PDE5 inhibitors on clitoral SMCs. However, a limit was to not have investigated the sexual function/behavior of women of both groups, this was because of the short time of the study.

CONCLUSION

This study could help to understand in what way PDE5 inhibitors act on the ultrastructural pathophysiological clitoral cavernous tissue of women with diabetes. It could support PDE5 inhibitor usage in women with genital sexual arousal disorder due to metabolic diseases. Caruso S, Cianci A, Cianci S, et al. Ultrastructural Study of Clitoral Cavernous Tissue and Clitoral Blood Flow From Type 1 Diabetic Premenopausal Women on Phosphodiesterase-5 Inhibitor. J Sex Med 2019;16:375-382.

Does Type 1 Diabetes Modify Sexuality and Mood of Women and Men?

Background: Sexual disorders occurring in women and men with type 1 diabetes have not been sufficiently investigated and described until now. This study attempts to evaluate sexuality in women and men. Methods: Altogether, the study comprised 115 patients with type 1 diabetes and 105 healthy people constituting the control group. All the studied persons underwent survey studies determining sexuality using the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI-19) in women and the International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF-15) in men, and the occurrence of depression using the Beck Depression Inventory. The acceptance of illness among patients with diabetes was examined using the Acceptance of Illness Scale questionnaire. Results: In 35% of the examined women with diabetes, the study demonstrated sexual dysfunction as determined by total FSFI. The point values of all the investigated FSFI domains were significantly lower in women with diabetes than in healthy ones (p < 0.001). Erectile dysfunction occurred in 50% of the studied men with diabetes and in 23% of the control group of men (p = 0.0017). Conclusions: Type 1 diabetes leads to sexual disorders which occur in 1/3 of women and in 1/2 of men. Sexual disorders in patients with diabetes more frequently occur in men, persons with coexisting complications of diabetes, and in those with a concentration of glycated hemoglobin higher than 6.5%.

Cardiometabolic Risk and Female Sexuality-Part I. Risk Factors and Potential Pathophysiological Underpinnings for Female Vasculogenic Sexual Dysfunction Syndromes

INTRODUCTION

Erectile dysfunction is recognized as an opportunity for preventing cardiovascular (CV) events, and assessing the impairment of penile vascular flow by Doppler ultrasound is an important tool to ascertain CV risk. Conversely, the role of genital vascular impairment in the pathophysiology of female sexual dysfunction (FSD) remains contentious.

AIM

To focus on the current scientific support for an association between CV risk factors and female sexual health in the 1st part of a 2-part review.

METHODS

A thorough literature search of peer-reviewed publications on the associations between CV risk factors and FSD and their underlying mechanisms was performed using the PubMed database.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

We present a summary of the evidence from clinical studies and discuss the possible mechanisms providing the pathophysiologic bases of vasculogenic FSD syndromes.

RESULTS

The peripheral sexual response in women is a vascular-dependent event, and evidence suggests that cardiometabolic-related perturbations in endothelial function can determine vascular insufficiency in female genital tissues. Although epidemiologic and observational studies demonstrate that the prevalence of FSD is higher in women with diabetes mellitus, a cause-effect relation between these clinical conditions cannot be assumed. Evidence on the effect of obesity, metabolic syndrome, and polycystic ovary syndrome on sexual function in women is controversial. Data on the associations of dyslipidemia and hypertension with FSD are limited.

CONCLUSION

Common cardiometabolic alterations could affect vascular function in the female genital tract. Based on limited data, there is an association between CV risk factors and female sexual health in women; however, this association appears milder than in men. Maseroli E, Scavello I, Vignozzi L. Cardiometabolic Risk and Female Sexuality-Part I. Risk Factors and Potential Pathophysiological Underpinnings for Female Vasculogenic Sexual Dysfunction Syndromes. Sex Med Rev 2018;6:508-524.

Relationships of Sexual Dysfunction with Depression and Acceptance of Illness in Women and Men with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

An increased prevalence of sexual disorders has been reported in patients with type 2 diabetes. The aim of this study is the assessment of the influence of the psychical condition, the concentration of glycated hemoglobin, the duration of diabetes, the body mass index, the age, and the subjective acceptance of the illness on sexual disorders occurring in women and men with type 2 diabetes. The study enrolled 215 patients (114 women and 101 men) with type 2 diabetes and 183 controls. Sexuality was determined in all of the studied subjects using: the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) in women and the International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF) in men. The occurrence of depression symptoms was determined using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), whereas the acceptance of the illness in diabetic patients using the Acceptance of Illness Scale (AIS). A sexual dysfunction was found in 68% of the studied diabetic women and 17% of controls. The point values of all the examined FSFI domains were significantly lower in women with diabetes than in controls (p < 0.001). Erectile disorders occurred in 82% of the studied men with diabetes and in 41% of the controls (p < 0.001). The point values of all the domains of FSFI and IIEF demonstrated a significantly negative correlation with the total BDI score, which was higher in patients with diabetes than in patients without diabetes, and a positive correlation with the total AIS score (p < 0.001). The occurrence of sexual dysfunction in patients with diabetes correlated with the age and the duration of diabetes. We conclude that sexual disorders in patients with type 2 diabetes demonstrate the correlation with the occurrence of depression and the acceptance of their illness. Sexual disorders in diabetic patients occur more frequently in older patients and in those with a longer duration of diabetes.

The Study of Gonadal Hormonal Abnormalities and Sexual Dysfunction in HIV Positive Females: An Exploratory Study

INTRODUCTION

Every endocrine gland has been reported to be affected at varying rates in HIV. HIV is a highly stigmatized chronic disease with a substantial co-occurrence of mental and sexual health problems; however the sexual health problems in women have not been extensively studied.

AIM

To study the gonadal hormonal abnormalities and sexual dysfunction in HIV positive female patients and its possible association.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This descriptive/exploratory study was conducted in the Department of General Medicine at a tertiary care hospital from September 2013 to August 2015. The study group included 50 diagnosed HIV-positive patients. They were also subjected to specific questions regarding sexual dysfunction by female counselors using female sexual function index. Visits of the subjects were scheduled independent of the menstrual cycle. Hormonal levels (free testosterone, FSH, LH) were measured.

RESULTS

Out of 50 patients, 26 patients in our study had sexual dysfunction (52%). Patients with age group between 30-39 years had the maximum sexual dysfunction compared to the other groups (<0.001). Patients with a CD4 count between 200 and 499 had the maximum sexual dysfunction (<0.02). Mean duration of HIV in the study was 30 months in sexual dysfunction group which was significant (p<0.005). Hormonal levels were found to be in normal range. All the study patients reported desire, arousal and lubrication problems whereas orgasm and satisfaction problems were noted in 60% patients with pain reported in 52%.

CONCLUSION

We identified that although the hormonal levels were in the normal range, they were comparatively in the lower range in the dysfunction group than the non-dysfunctional group. Both free testosterone and FSH levels were low indicating involvement of the pituitary rather than the gonads. We also conclude that duration of HIV and also level of CD4 count is related to sexual dysfunction.

Effectiveness of a PLISSIT model intervention in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in primary care: design of a cluster-randomised controlled trial

Background

Sexual dysfunction is prevalent in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, but remains one of the most frequently neglected complications in diabetes care. Both patients and care providers appear to have difficulty with discussing sexual problems in diabetes care. A sexual counselling model for care providers, such as the PLISSIT model, might be a useful tool to improve the discussion of sexual issues in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. PLISSIT stands for Permission, Limited Information, Specific Suggestions, and Intensive Therapy. Even though the use of the PLISSIT model has often been recommended in diabetes care, no evidence with regards to its effectiveness in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus exists. This study describes the design of a cluster-randomised controlled trial evaluating the effectiveness of a PLISSIT-model intervention in men and women with type 2 diabetes mellitus in primary care.

Methods/Design

Patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, aged 40–75 years, who indicate to be dissatisfied about their sexual functioning and that they would like to talk about their sexual problem(s) with their general practitioner are recruited. All participants receive an information leaflet from the practice nurse. In the intervention group, each participant will also receive sexual counselling based on the PLISSIT model from their general practitioner. In the control group, usual care will be provided to those participants requesting an appointment with their general practitioner when the information leaflet was not deemed sufficient. Primary outcomes include sexual functioning, satisfaction about sexual function, and quality of life. Secondary outcomes are depressive symptoms, sexual distress, emotional well-being, and treatment satisfaction. Outcomes will be measured by means of self-report questionnaires at baseline, and after 3 and 12 months post-baseline. Treatment satisfaction will be assessed in telephone interviews.

Discussion

This paper describes the design of a cluster-randomised controlled trial that will investigate the effectiveness of a PLISSIT-model intervention in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in primary care. Our study will add important and currently missing insight into the effectiveness of PLISSIT on important patient-reported outcomes of men and women with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Trial registration

Dutch Trial Registry NTR4807.

Prevalence and Correlates of Sexual Dysfunction in Men and Women With Type 2 Diabetes

This study aimed to assess the prevalence and correlates of sexual dysfunction in a sample of Dutch men and women with type 2 diabetes. Patients with type 2 diabetes who were between the ages of 40 and 75 years from 4 Dutch diabetes centers were asked to complete self-report questionnaires covering sociodemographic characteristics, medical characteristics, clinical depression (Center for Epidemiological Studies), and sexual dysfunction (in men: International Index of Erectile Function; in women: Female Sexual Function Index). In total, 158 type 2 diabetes patients (68% men) completed the cross-sectional survey. On the basis of predefined criteria, 69% of men and 70% of women were classified with some degree of sexual dysfunction. Univariable logistic regression analyses revealed that sexual dysfunctions were associated with higher age, clinical depression (Center for Epidemiological Studies score ≥16), and one or more diabetes-related complications in both men and women. Multivariable logistic regression analyses revealed that clinical depression was most strongly associated with both male (OR = 6.87, 95% CI [1.77, 26.63]) and female (OR = 9.33, 95% CI [1.03, 84.87]) sexual dysfunction. In conclusion, sexual dysfunction is highly prevalent in men and women with type 2 diabetes and is associated with higher age, clinical depression, and diabetes-related complications. These results suggest that addressing sexual dysfunction in diabetes care is important.

Diabetes and sexual dysfunction: current perspectives

Diabetes mellitus is one of the most common chronic diseases in nearly all countries. It has been associated with sexual dysfunction, both in males and in females. Diabetes is an established risk factor for sexual dysfunction in men, as a threefold increased risk of erectile dysfunction was documented in diabetic men, as compared with nondiabetic men. Among women, evidence regarding the association between diabetes and sexual dysfunction are less conclusive, although most studies have reported a higher prevalence of female sexual dysfunction in diabetic women as compared with nondiabetic women. Female sexual function appears to be more related to social and psychological components than to the physiological consequence of diabetes. Hyperglycemia, which is a main determinant of vascular and microvascular diabetic complications, may participate in the pathogenetic mechanisms of sexual dysfunction in diabetes. Moreover, diabetic people may present several clinical conditions, including hypertension, overweight and obesity, metabolic syndrome, cigarette smoking, and atherogenic dyslipidemia, which are themselves risk factors for sexual dysfunction, both in men and in women. The adoption of healthy lifestyles may reduce insulin resistance, endothelial dysfunction, and oxidative stress - all of which are desirable achievements in diabetic patients. Improved well-being may further contribute to reduce and prevent sexual dysfunction in both sexes.

National recommendations: Psychosocial management of diabetes in India

Although several evidence-based guidelines for managing diabetes are available, few, if any, focus on the psychosocial aspects of this challenging condition. It is increasingly evident that psychosocial treatment is integral to a holistic approach of managing diabetes; it forms the key to realizing appropriate biomedical outcomes. Dearth of attention is as much due to lack of awareness as due to lack of guidelines. This lacuna results in diversity among the standards of clinical practice, which, in India, is also due to the size and complexity of psychosocial care itself. This article aims to highlight evidence- and experience-based Indian guidelines for the psychosocial management of diabetes. A systemic literature was conducted for peer-reviewed studies and publications covering psychosocial aspects in diabetes. Recommendations are classified into three domains: General, psychological and social, and graded by the weight they should have in clinical practice and by the degree of support from the literature. Ninety-four recommendations of varying strength are made to help professionals identify the psychosocial interventions needed to support patients and their families and explore their role in devising support strategies. They also aid in developing core skills needed for effective diabetes management. These recommendations provide practical guidelines to fulfill unmet needs in diabetes management, and help achieve a qualitative improvement in the way physicians manage patients. The guidelines, while maintaining an India-specific character, have global relevance, which is bound to grow as the diabetes pandemic throws up new challenges.

Sexuality among Spanish adults with diabetes: a population-based case control study

OBJECTIVES

To describe and compare sexuality between subjects with diabetes with matched non-diabetic controls.

METHODS

Population based case control study using individual data from the Spanish National Sexual Health Survey. Diabetes status was self reported, we selected type 2 patients. We identified 461 diabetes sufferers. Two controls were matched by age, sex and sexual partner for each diabetic case. Sexuality measures included: sexual activity, importance of sex, satisfaction with partner, bothersome with one's sexual life and self-rated sexual health. Independent variables included: socio-demographics, physical health, chronic diseases and medications use.

RESULTS

No differences were found in "Sexually activity", "Importance of sex" or "Bothersome" between those with and without diabetes. Dissatisfaction with partner was 25% in women with diabetes and 12.9% in non-diabetic controls (Adjusted-OR 1.82 95%CI 1.02-4.85). Diabetes sufferers reported sexual health as "fair/poor/very poor" more than their non-diabetic control, 58.1% vs. 45.1% for women (Adjusted-OR 1.74 95%CI 1.15-2.63) and 54.3% vs. 38% for men (Adjusted-OR 1.88 95%CI 1.29-2.75). Among diabetes sufferers "fair/poor/very poor" sexual health was associated with poorer physical health, not having a sexual partner and among men taking heart medications.

CONCLUSIONS

Women and men with diabetes have significantly worse sexuality measures than non diabetic controls.

Sexual dysfunctions in patients with diabetes: a study from Iran

BACKGROUND

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease that causes short and long-term complications. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of sexual dysfunctions (SD) among diabetic patients in Iran and to examine whether glycemic control has a role in SD.

METHODS

A consecutive sample of diabetic women and men who were registered in the Isfahan Endocrine and Metabolism Center, Iran were studied. Sexual dysfunction was evaluated using the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) in women and the International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF) in men. In addition the level of glycosylated hemoglobin was assessed to classify the diabetes status in patients.

RESULTS

In all 200 patients (100 male and 100 female) were entered into the study. The mean age of patients was 48.6 (SD = 7.3) years and most had type 2 diabetes (91.0%). The results showed that sexual dysfunctions were widespread in both gender and 165 (82.5%) patients reported that experienced at least one sexual dysfunction. There were significant associations between sexual dysfunctions and gender and type of diabetes (P = 0.04). Women and patients with type 1 diabetes had higher rates of SD. No major differences were found between SD and age, diabetes status, duration of diabetes and hypertension. In addition, glycemic control did not show a significant association with SD in both genders.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study showed that SD prevalence was high in diabetic patients of both genders and the glycemic control did not correlate with the frequency of SD in the study population. It is recommended that SD should be addressed more precisely in health care practice in Iran.