Genetic Testing in Prostate Cancer

Germline and somatic mutations in prostate cancer: Implications for treatment

Genetic testing is an integral part of the workup of metastatic prostate cancer, in part, because the results can have a profound impact on the subsequent management of this disease. There are now several Food & Drug Administration (FDA) approved therapeutics available for patients with prostate cancer and certain genetic abnormalities - most notably, mutations in DNA damage repair (DDR) pathways such mismatch repair (MMR) and homologous recombination repair (HRR). In this review of the current literature, we discuss the indications for somatic and germline testing, the genetic changes of particular clinical relevance, the associated therapeutic options, and the clinical data supporting their use. We also highlight select trials-in-progress and future directions for the field.

Innovative Drug Modalities for the Treatment of Advanced Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer, a prevalent malignancy affecting the prostate gland, is a significant global health concern. Androgen-deprivation therapy (ADT) has proven effective in controlling advanced disease, with over 50% of patients surviving at the 10-year mark. However, a diverse spectrum of responses exists, and resistance to ADT may emerge over time. This underscores the need to explore innovative treatment strategies for effectively managing prostate cancer progression. Ongoing research endeavors persist in unraveling the complexity of prostate cancer and fostering the development of biologic and innovative approaches, including immunotherapies and targeted therapies. This review aims to provide a valuable synthesis of the dynamic landscape of emerging drug modalities in this context. Interestingly, the complexities posed by prostate cancer not only present a formidable challenge but also serve as a model and an opportunity for translational research and innovative therapies in the field of oncology.

Genetic Signatures for Distinguishing Chemo-Sensitive from Chemo-Resistant Responders in Prostate Cancer Patients

Prostate cancer remains a significant public health concern in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly impacting South Africa with high mortality rates. Despite many years of extensive research and significant financial expenditure, there has yet to be a definitive solution to prostate cancer. It is not just individuals who vary in their response to treatment, but even different nodules within the same tumor exhibit unique transcriptome patterns. These distinctions extend beyond mere differences in gene expression levels to encompass the control and networking of individual genes. Escalating chemotherapy resistance in prostate cancer patients has prompted increased research into its underlying mechanisms. The heterogeneous nature of transcriptomic organization among men makes the pursuit of universal biomarkers and one-size-fits-all treatments impractical. This study delves into the expression of drug resistance-associated genes, ABCB1 and CYP1B1, in cancer cells. Employing bioinformatics, we explored the molecular pathways and cascades linked to drug resistance following upregulation of these genes. Samples were obtained from archived prostate cancer patient specimens through pre-treatment biopsies of two categories: good vs. poor responders, with cDNAs synthesized from isolated RNAs subjected to qPCR analysis. The results revealed increased ABCB1 and CYP1B1 expression in tumor samples of the poor responders. Gene enrichment and network analysis associated ABCB1 with ABC transporters and LncRNA-mediated therapeutic resistance (WP3672), while CYP1B1 was linked to ovarian steroidogenesis, tryptophan metabolism, steroid hormone biosynthesis, benzo(a)pyrene metabolism, the sulindac metabolic pathway, and the estrogen receptor pathway, which are associated with drug resistance. Both ABCB1 and CYP1B1 correlated with microRNAs in cancer and the Nuclear Receptors Meta-Pathway. STRING analysis predicted protein-protein interactions of ABCB1 and CYP1B1 with Glutathione S-transferase Pi, Catechol O-methyltransferase, UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1-6, Leucine-rich Transmembrane and O-methyltransferase (LRTOMT), and Epoxide hydrolase 1, with scores of 0.973, 0.971, 0.966, 0.966, and 0.966, respectively. Furthermore, molecular docking analysis of the chemotherapy drug, docetaxel, with CYP1B1 and ABCB1 revealed robust molecular interactions, with binding energies of -20.37 and -15.25 Kcal/mol, respectively. These findings underscore the susceptibility of cancer patients to drug resistance due to increased ABCB1 and CYP1B1 expression in tumor samples from patients in the poor-responders category that affects associated molecular pathways. The potent molecular interactions of ABCB1 and CYP1B1 with docetaxel further emphasize the potential basis for chemotherapy resistance.

Toward Informed Selection and Interpretation of Clinical Genomic Tests in Prostate Cancer

Clinical genomic testing of patient germline, tumor tissue, or plasma cell-free DNA can enable a personalized approach to cancer management and treatment. In prostate cancer (PCa), broad genotyping tests are now widely used to identify germline and/or somatic alterations in BRCA2 and other DNA damage repair genes. Alterations in these genes can confer cancer sensitivity to poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors, are linked with poor prognosis, and can have potential hereditary cancer implications for family members. However, there is huge variability in genomic tests and reporting standards, meaning that for successful implementation of testing in clinical practice, end users must carefully select the most appropriate test for a given patient and critically interpret the results. In this white paper, we outline key pre- and post-test considerations for choosing a genomic test and evaluating reported variants, specifically for patients with advanced PCa. Test choice must be based on clinical context and disease state, availability and suitability of tumor tissue, and the genes and regions that are covered by the test. We describe strategies to recognize false positives or negatives in test results, including frameworks to assess low tumor fraction, subclonal alterations, clonal hematopoiesis, and pathogenic versus nonpathogenic variants. We assume that improved understanding among health care professionals and researchers of the nuances associated with genomic testing will ultimately lead to optimal patient care and clinical decision making.

Research protocol to identify progression and death amongst patients with metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer treated with available treatments: PIONEER IMI's "big data for better outcomes" program

Androgen deprivation therapy-based with or without first-generation anti-androgens, was the standard of care for patients with metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer (mHSPC) for decades. However, the development of docetaxel chemotherapy and new androgen receptor-targeted agents, abiraterone acetate and prednisolone, apalutamide , enzalutamide and darolutamide (in combination with docetaxel chemotherapy) has proven that combination of treatments is more effective. Recently, intensification therapy, so-called "triplets", have emerged in the armamentarium of mHSPC treatment. Metastatic disease is a clinical state that remains poorly understood. The optimal diagnostic and management of patients with mHSPC are changing thanks to the development of new imaging techniques and therapies. The primary objective of this study is to develop and validate a predictive model for the occurrence of symptomatic progression, initiation of new treatments and death amongst patients with mHSPC treated with one of the approved treatment plans, on characteristics present at admission.

Prostate cancer patient stratification by molecular signatures in the Veterans Precision Oncology Data Commons

Veterans are at an increased risk for prostate cancer, a disease with extraordinary clinical and molecular heterogeneity, compared with the general population. However, little is known about the underlying molecular heterogeneity within the veteran population and its impact on patient management and treatment. Using clinical and targeted tumor sequencing data from the National Veterans Affairs health system, we conducted a retrospective cohort study on 45 patients with advanced prostate cancer in the Veterans Precision Oncology Data Commons (VPODC), most of whom were metastatic castration-resistant. We characterized the mutational burden in this cohort and conducted unsupervised clustering analysis to stratify patients by molecular alterations. Veterans with prostate cancer exhibited a mutational landscape broadly similar to prior studies, including KMT2A and NOTCH1 mutations associated with neuroendocrine prostate cancer phenotype, previously reported to be enriched in veterans. We also identified several potential novel mutations in PTEN, MSH6, VHL, SMO, and ABL1 Hierarchical clustering analysis revealed two subgroups containing therapeutically targetable molecular features with novel mutational signatures distinct from those reported in the Catalogue of Somatic Mutations in Cancer database. The clustering approach presented in this study can potentially be used to clinically stratify patients based on their distinct mutational profiles and identify actionable somatic mutations for precision oncology.

Novel cuproptosis-related long non-coding RNA signature to predict prognosis in prostate carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Cuproptosis, an emerging form of programmed cell death, has recently been identified. However, the association between cuproptosis-related long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) signature and the prognosis in prostate carcinoma remains elusive. This study aims to develop the novel cuproptosis-related lncRNA signature in prostate cancer and explore its latent molecular function.

METHODS

RNA-seq data and clinical information were downloaded from the TCGA datasets. Then, cuproptosis-related gene was identified from the previous literature and further applied to screen the cuproptosis-related differentially expressed lncRNAs. Patients were randomly assigned to the training cohort or the validation cohort with a 1:1 ratio. Subsequently, the machine learning algorithms (Lasso and stepwise Cox (direction = both)) were used to construct a novel prognostic signature in the training cohorts, which was validated by the validation and the entire TCGA cohorts. The nomogram base on the lncRNA signature and several clinicopathological traits were constructed to predict the prognosis. Functional enrichment and immune analysis were performed to evaluate its potential mechanism. Furthermore, differences in the landscape of gene mutation, tumour mutational burden (TMB), microsatellite instability (MSI), drug sensitivity between both risk groups were also assessed to explicit their relationships.

RESULTS

The cuproptosis-related lncRNA signature was constructed based on the differentially expressed cuproptosis-related lncRNAs, including AC005790.1, AC011472.4, AC099791.2, AC144450.1, LIPE-AS1, and STPG3-AS1. Kaplan-Meier survival and ROC curves demonstrate that the prognosis signature as an independent risk indicator had excellent potential to predict the prognosis in prostate cancer. The signature was closely associated with age, T stage, N stage, and the Gleason score. Immune analysis shows that the high-risk group was in an immunosuppressive microenvironment. Additionally, the significant difference in landscape of gene mutation, tumour mutational burden, microsatellite instability, and drug sensitivity between both risk groups was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

A novel cuproptosis-related lncRNA signature was constructed using machine learning algorithms to predict the prognosis of prostate cancer. It was closely with associated with several common clinical traits, immune cell infiltration, immune-related functions, immune checkpoints, gene mutation, TMB, MSI, and the drug sensitivity, which may be useful to improve the clinical outcome.

A systematic review on the association between ovarian and prostate cancer with <I>BRCA1</I> and <I>BRCA2</I> gene

Background. BRCA1 and BRCA2 were discussed as the basis of inherited adenocarcinoma and breast and ovarian malignancy. Ovarian cancer is uncommon in women below 40 years of age, and prostate cancer mainly occurs in older men cause 90 % in those above sixty-fve.

Objective. The main objective of this paper is to investigate the relationship between ovarian and prostate cancer with the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes.

Material and Methods. The ovarian and prostate cancer mechanism is discussed in detail, and their preventive measures with screening techniques are also demonstrated. This systematic review collected the related articles from online databases using the key terms ovarian cancer, prostate cancer, BRCA genes, mutation, polymorphism, carcinoma, sarcoma, and genetic association.

Results. Based on the obtained information, it is found that the BRCA genes are highly associated with prostate cancer in men, and in women, it is significantly linked with breast cancer than ovarian cancer.

Conclusion. Therefore, early diagnosis and genetic testing for BRCA1&BRCA2 genes in both men and women are necessary. In some cases, these genes might even cause different types of cancer like pancreatic cancers. Identifying individuals with tumour-HRD through mutations in the homologous repair pathway and determining this gene expression is essential to improve treatment techniques developed during the previous decade and rapidly make their way into clinical trials practice. However, the safe introduction of these medicines into everyday practice will require a thorough understanding of treatment targets and associated adverse effects. 

Increased Risk of Hereditary Prostate Cancer in Italian Families with Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Syndrome Harboring Mutations in BRCA and in Other Susceptibility Genes

Hereditary prostate cancer (HPCa) has the highest heritability of any cancer in men. Interestingly, it occurs in several hereditary syndromes, including breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC) and Lynch syndrome (LS). Several gene mutations related to these syndromes have been identified as biomarkers in HPCa. The goal of this study was to screen for germline mutations in susceptibility genes by using a multigene panel, and to subsequently correlate the results with clinical and laboratory parameters. This was undertaken in 180 HBOC families, which included 217 males with prostate cancer (PCa). Mutational analysis was further extended to 104 family members of mutated patients. Screening of HBOC families revealed that 30.5% harbored germline mutations in susceptibility genes, with 21.6% harboring pathogenic variants (PVs) and 8.9% having variants of uncertain significance (VUS). We found PVs at similar frequency in BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes (8.8% and 9.4%, respectively), while 0.56% of PVs were present in well-established susceptibility genes PALB2, TP53 and RAD51C. Moreover, 0.56% of monoallelic PVs were present in MUTYH, a gene whose function in tumorigenesis in the context of PCa is still unclear. Finally, we reported double heterozygosity (DH) in BRCA1/2 genes in a single family, and found double mutation (DM) present in BRCA2 in a separate family. There was no significant difference between the mean age of onset of PCa in HBOC families with or without germline mutations in susceptibility genes, while the mean survival was highest in mutated patients compared to wild type. Furthermore, PCa is the second most recurrent cancer in our cohort, resulting in 18% of cases in both mutated and non-mutated families. Our investigation shows that PVs were located mostly in the 3′ of BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, and in BRCA2, most PVs fell in exon 11, suggesting a mutation cluster region relating to risk of HPCa. A total of 65 family members inherited the proband’s mutation; of these, 24 developed cancer, with 41 remaining unaffected.

BRCA Mutations in Ovarian and Prostate Cancer: Bench to Bedside

Simple Summary

DNA damage is one of the hallmarks of cancer. Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) —especially the high-grade serous subtype—harbors a defect in at least one DNA damage response (DDR) pathway. Defective DDR results from a variety of lesions affecting homologous recombination (HR) and nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ) for double strand breaks, base excision repair (BER), and nucleotide excision repair (NER) for single strand breaks and mismatch repair (MMR). Apart from the EOC, mutations in the DDR genes, such as BRCA1 and BRCA2, are common in prostate cancer as well. Among them, BRCA2 lesions are found in 12% of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancers, but very rarely in primary prostate cancer. Better understanding of the DDR pathways is essential in order to optimize the therapeutic choices, and has led to the design of biomarker-driven clinical trials. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors are now a standard therapy for EOC patients, and more recently have been approved for the metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer with alterations in DDR genes. They are particularly effective in tumours with HR deficiency.

Abstract

DNA damage repair (DDR) defects are common in different cancer types, and these alterations can be exploited therapeutically. Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is among the tumours with the highest percentage of hereditary cases. BRCA1 and BRCA2 predisposing pathogenic variants (PVs) were the first to be associated with EOC, whereas additional genes comprising the homologous recombination (HR) pathway have been discovered with DNA sequencing technologies. The incidence of DDR alterations among patients with metastatic prostate cancer is much higher compared to those with localized disease. Genetic testing is playing an increasingly important role in the treatment of patients with ovarian and prostate cancer. The development of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors offers a therapeutic strategy for patients with EOC. One of the mechanisms of PARP inhibitors exploits the concept of synthetic lethality. Tumours with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations are highly sensitive to PARP inhibitors. Moreover, the synthetic lethal interaction may be exploited beyond germline BRCA mutations in the context of HR deficiency, and this is an area of ongoing research. PARP inhibitors are in advanced stages of development as a treatment for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. However, there is a major concern regarding the need to identify reliable biomarkers predictive of treatment response. In this review, we explore the mechanisms of DDR, the potential for genomic analysis of ovarian and prostate cancer, and therapeutics of PARP inhibitors, along with predictive biomarkers.

Genetic Testing and Its Clinical Application in Prostate Cancer Management: Consensus Statements from the Hong Kong Urological Association and Hong Kong Society of Uro-Oncology

Background

In recent years, indications for genetic testing in prostate cancer (PC) have expanded from patients with a family history of prostate and/or related cancers to those with advanced castration-resistant disease, and even to early PC patients for determination of the appropriateness of active surveillance. The current consensus aims to provide guidance to urologists, oncologists and pathologists working with Asian PC patients on who and what to test for in selected populations.

Methods

A joint consensus panel from the Hong Kong Urological Association and Hong Kong Society of Uro-Oncology was convened over a series of 5 physical and virtual meetings. A background literature search on genetic testing in PC was performed in PubMed, ClinicalKey, EBSCOHost, Ovid and ProQuest, and three working subgroups were formed to review and present the relevant evidence. Meeting agendas adopted a modified Delphi approach to ensure that discussions proceed in a structured, iterative and balanced manner, which was followed by an anonymous voting on candidate statements. Of 5 available answer options, a consensus statement was accepted if ≥ 75% of the panelists chose “Accept Completely” (Option A) or “Accept with Some Reservation” (Option B).

Results

The consensus was structured into three parts: indications for testing, testing methods, and therapeutic implications. A list of 35 candidate statements were developed, of which 31 were accepted. The statements addressed questions on the application of PC genetic testing data and guidelines to Asian patients, including patient selection for germline testing, selection of gene panel and tissue sample, provision of genetic counseling, and use of novel systemic treatments in metastatic castration-resistant PC patients.

Conclusion

This consensus provides guidance to urologists, oncologists and pathologists working with Asian patients on indications for genetic testing, testing methods and technical considerations, and associated therapeutic implications.

PARP Inhibitors: A New Horizon for Patients with Prostate Cancer

The introduction of PARP inhibitors (PARPi) in prostate cancer is a milestone and provides a pathway to hope in fighting this disease. It is the first time that drugs, based on the concept of synthetic lethality, have been approved for prostate cancer. In addition, it is also the first time that genetic mutation tests have been included in the therapeutic algorithm of this disease, representing a significant step forward for precision and personalized treatment of prostate cancer. The objectives of this review are: (1) understanding the mechanism of action of PARPi in monotherapy and combinations; (2) gaining insights on patient selection for PARPi; (3) exposing the pivotal studies that have allowed its approval, and; (4) offering an overview of the ongoing trials. Nevertheless, many unsolved questions remain, such as the number of patients who could potentially benefit from PARPi, whether to use PARPi in monotherapy or in combination, and when is the best time to use them in advanced or localized disease. To answer these and other questions, many clinical trials are underway. Some of them have recently demonstrated promising results that may favor the introduction of new combinations in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer.

Understanding the Uptake and Challenges of Genetic Testing Guidelines for Prostate Cancer Patients

BACKGROUND

Multiple studies have confirmed a high prevalence of prognostic germline mutations in prostate cancer. In recognition, the NCCN guidelines and recommendations for genetic counselling (GC) in prostate cancer patients were expanded.

METHODS

Data on prostate cancer patients at a single tertiary cancer center from January 2019 - June 2019 were queried. The cohort of patients from the queried list were evaluated for their eligibility for genetic testing. From the patients that were eligible for testing, the rate of referrals was ascertained. A 10-item questionnaire was concurrently sent to providers to understand germline genetic testing patterns and potential barriers.

RESULTS

Only 39% of the eligible prostate cancer patients were referred, with testing completed in 11% with indications. 30% of providers reported they would be comfortable completing genetic counseling themselves. The identified barriers to provide genetic testing themselves were lack of time and expertise (50%). Other barriers included: lack of genetic counselor workforce (70%), lack of knowledge of genetic testing and the inadequate co-ordination of referrals (60%).

CONCLUSION

In this retrospective study, many patients met the criteria for GC, however, the referrals for this patient population are inconsistent, and only a handful of the eligible patients completed testing. Identified barriers were provider's knowledge and comfort with guidelines and testing, systemic bottlenecks such as limited capacity of genetic counsellors, and the creation of improved workflows.

Hereditary cancer risk assessment and genetic testing in the community urology practice setting

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the feasibility of integrating a hereditary cancer risk assessment (HCRA) process in the community urology practice setting for patients with prostate cancer (PCa).

METHODS

In this prospective intervention, an HCRA process was implemented across six different community urology clinics between May 2019 and April 2020. The intervention included a process integration during which the workflow at each site was refined, a post-integration period during which HCRA was conducted in all patients with PCa, and a follow-up period during which healthcare providers and patients reported their satisfaction with the HCRA and genetic testing process.

RESULTS

Among patients who completed a family history assessment during the post-integration period, 23.6% met guideline criteria for genetic testing. Of all patients seen at the clinic during the post-integration period, 8.7% completed genetic testing; this was a twofold increase over the period immediately preceding process integration (4.2%), and a sevenfold increase over the same period 1 year prior (1.2%). The majority of providers reported that the HCRA was as important as other regularly performed assessments (61.0%) and planned to continue using the process in their practice (68.3%). Most patients believed that the genetic test results were important for their future cancer care (84.7%) and had already shared their test results with at least one family member (63.2%).

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that implementing an HCRA process in the community urology practice setting was feasible, generally favored by providers and patients, and resulted in an increase in the number of patients with PCa who completed genetic testing.

Where Do We Stand in the Management of Oligometastatic Prostate Cancer? A Comprehensive Review

Simple Summary

Oligometastatic prostate cancer is an intermediate stage between localised and metastatic disease. Today, there are many advances in the diagnosis of this stage of the disease, with the appearance of new imaging techniques and treatments, thanks to the development of new modalities, both local and systemic therapies, the emergence of personalised medicine, and theragnostics.

Abstract

Oligometastatic prostate cancer (OMPC) is an intermediate state between localised disease and widespread metastases that includes a spectrum of disease biology and clinical behaviours. This narrative review will cover the current OMPC scenario. We conducted comprehensive English language literature research for original and review articles using the Medline database and grey literature through December 2021. OMPC is a unique clinical state with inherently more indolent tumour biology susceptible to multidisciplinary treatment (MDT). With the development of new imaging techniques, patients with OMPC are likely to be identified at an earlier stage, and the paradigm for treatment is shifting towards a more aggressive approach to treating potentially curable patients. Multimodal management is necessary to improve patient outcomes due to the combination of available therapies, such as local therapy of primary tumour, metastasis directed therapy or systemic therapy, to reduce tumour load and prevent further disease progression. Additional prospective data are needed to select patients most likely to benefit from a given therapeutic approach.

BRCA Mutations in Prostate Cancer: Assessment, Implications and Treatment Considerations

Prostate cancer ranks fifth in cancer-related mortality in men worldwide. DNA damage is implicated in cancer and DNA damage response (DDR) pathways are in place against this to maintain genomic stability. Impaired DDR pathways play a role in prostate carcinogenesis and germline or somatic mutations in DDR genes have been found in both primary and metastatic prostate cancer. Among these, BRCA mutations have been found to be especially clinically relevant with a role for germline or somatic testing. Prostate cancer with DDR defects may be sensitive to poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors which target proteins in a process called PARylation. Initially they were used to target BRCA-mutated tumor cells in a process of synthetic lethality. However, recent studies have found potential for PARP inhibitors in a variety of other genetic settings. In this review, we explore the mechanisms of DNA repair, potential for genomic analysis of prostate cancer and therapeutics of PARP inhibitors along with their safety profile.

A Case-Based Clinical Approach to the Investigation, Management and Screening of Families with BRCA2 Related Prostate Cancer

BRCA2 is the most commonly implicated DNA damage repair gene associated with inherited prostate cancer. BRCA2 deficient prostate cancer typically presents at a younger age, is more poorly differentiated, and is associated with worse survival outcomes than non-BRCA2 associated prostate cancer. Despite these unfavourable prognostic implications, poly-ADP ribose polymerase inhibitors and platinum-based chemotherapy have been identified as potent targeted therapeutic agents towards BRCA1/2 deficient cancer cells. This review article explores the literature surrounding BRCA2-related prostate cancer through a familial clinical scenario. The investigation, diagnosis and management of BRCA2 deficient prostate cancer will be explored, alongside the implications of the identification of a germline pathogenic BRCA2 variant within a family, cascade screening and prostate cancer surveillance in unaffected male BRCA2 carriers. A greater understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of DNA damage repair gene deficient prostate cancer, coupled with new treatment paradigms and widened access to both somatic and germline genetic analysis for prostate cancer patients and their families will hopefully enable the robust implementation of high quality evidence-based clinical pathways for both the management and identification of BRCA2 deficient prostate cancer and improved screening, early detection and prevention strategies for individuals at increased genetic risk of prostate cancer.

Hereditary Prostate Cancer: Genes Related, Target Therapy and Prevention

Prostate cancer (PCa) is globally the second most diagnosed cancer type and the most common cause of cancer-related deaths in men. Family history of PCa, hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC) and Lynch syndromes (LS), are among the most important risk factors compared to age, race, ethnicity and environmental factors for PCa development. Hereditary prostate cancer (HPCa) has the highest heritability of any major cancer in men. The proportion of PCa attributable to hereditary factors has been estimated in the range of 5–15%. To date, the genes more consistently associated to HPCa susceptibility include mismatch repair (MMR) genes (MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, and PMS2) and homologous recombination genes (BRCA1/2, ATM, PALB2, CHEK2). Additional genes are also recommended to be integrated into specific research, including HOXB13, BRP1 and NSB1. Importantly, BRCA1/BRCA2 and ATM mutated patients potentially benefit from Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase PARP inhibitors, through a mechanism of synthetic lethality, causing selective tumor cell cytotoxicity in cell lines. Moreover, the detection of germline alterations in MMR genes has therapeutic implications, as it may help to predict immunotherapy benefits. Here, we discuss the current knowledge of the genetic basis for inherited predisposition to PCa, the potential target therapy, and the role of active surveillance as a management strategy for patients with low-risk PCa. Finally, the current PCa guideline recommendations are reviewed.

Genetic counseling in prostate cancer: How to implement it in daily clinical practice?

Prostate cancer plays an undeniably prominent role in public health in our days and health systems. Its epidemiological impact is quantitatively very close to that of other tumors such as colon cancer and breast cancer, in which genetic counseling is part of their routine clinical practice, both in the initial evaluation and in the selection of therapeutic strategies. Hereditary cancer syndromes, breast/ovarian and Lynch syndrome are part of genetic counseling in these tumors. Currently, we also know that they can be associated to prostate cancer. The time has come to implement genetic counseling in prostate cancer from the earliest stages of its approach, from initial suspicion to the most advanced tumors. We present an updated review carried out by our interdisciplinary working group on scientific literature, clinical practice guidelines and consensus documents, aimed at the creation and drafting of a'Protocol for genetic counseling in prostate cancer' for the study of germline, with easy application in different healthcare settings. This protocol is currently being implemented in our routine practice and provides answers to 3 specific questions: Who should receive genetic counseling for prostate cancer? Which gene panel should be analyzed? How should counseling be done according to the results obtained? Other aspects about who should perform genetic counseling, ethical considerations and regulations are also collected.

Targeting the BMP Pathway in Prostate Cancer Induced Bone Disease

From the 33,000 men in the U.S. who die from prostate cancer each year, the majority of these patients exhibit metastatic disease with bone being the most common site of metastasis. Prostate cancer bone metastases are commonly blastic, exhibiting new growth of unhealthy sclerotic bone, which can cause painful skeletal related events. Patient's current care entails androgen deprivation therapy, anti-resorptive agents, radiation, and chemotherapy to help control the spread of the cancer but little intervention is available to treat blastic bone disease. The transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) pathways are known to regulate bone growth and resorption of destructive lytic bone lesions, yet the role of TGFβ/BMP signaling in prostate cancer blastic vs lytic bone lesions are not fully understood. We hypothesized that to target the BMP/TGFβ pathway, a useful biomarker of bone lytic or blastic pathology would have superior response. We show distinct BMP vs. TGFβ signaling in clinical samples of human prostate cancer bone metastases with either lytic or blastic pathologies. BMPs exhibit distinct effects on bone homeostasis, so to examine the effect of BMP inhibition on healthy bone, we treated mice with the BMP receptor small molecule antagonist DMH1 and saw a modest temporary improvement in bone health, with increased trabecular bone. We next sought to use the BMP inhibitor DMH1 to treat bone metastasis engraftment seeded by a caudal artery injection of the lytic human prostate cell line PC3 in immunodeficient mice. The colonization by PC3 cells to the bone were restricted with DMH1 treatment and bone health was importantly preserved. We next proceeded to test BMP inhibition in an injury model of established bone metastasis via intratibial injection of the MYC-CaP mouse prostate cell line into FVBN syngeneic mice. DMH1 treated mice had a modest decrease in trabecular bone and reduced lymphocytes in circulation without affecting tumor growth. Taken together we show unique responses to BMP inhibition in metastatic prostate cancer in the bone. These studies suggest that profiling bone lesions in metastatic prostate cancer can help identify therapeutic targets that not only treat the metastatic tumor but also address the need to better treat the distinct tumor induced bone disease.

Intraductal Carcinoma of the Prostate: Pathogenesis and Molecular Perspectives

Intraductal carcinoma of the prostate (IDC-P), a clinicopathological entity characterized by malignant prostatic epithelial cells growing within ducts and/or acini, has a distinct architectural pattern, cytological features, and biological behavior. Whereas most IDC-P tumors could be derived from adjacent high-grade invasive cancer via retrograde spreading of cancer cells along benign ducts and acini, a small subset of IDC-P may arise from the transformation and intraductal proliferation of precancerous cells induced by various oncogenic events. These isolated IDC-P tumors possess a distinct mutational profile and may function as a carcinoma in situ lesion with de novo intraductal outgrowth of malignant cells. Further molecular characterization of these two types of IDC-P and better understanding of the mechanisms underlying IDC-P formation and progression could be translated into valuable biomarkers for differential diagnosis and actionable targets for therapeutic interventions. PATIENT SUMMARY: Intraductal carcinoma of the prostate is an aggressive type of prostate cancer associated with high risk for local recurrence and distant metastasis. In this review, we discussed pathogenesis, biomarkers, differential diagnoses, and therapeutic strategies for this tumor.

Biomarkers in the setting of benign prostatic hyperplasia-induced lower urinary tract symptoms: what an interventional radiologist needs to know

With increasing evidence to support prostate artery embolization (PAE) in the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)-induced lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS), Interventional Radiologists have begun to play an important role in the management of these patients. One area of knowledge needed when developing a PAE practice is knowledge of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and other biomarkers utilized to detect prostate cancer in this population and what role they should play in the work up and follow-up of patients presenting with presumed BPH-induced LUTS. Furthermore, understanding how to evaluate presumed BPH-induced LUTS and stratify the risk of prostate cancer is an important skill to develop. The goal of this review is to provide Interventional Radiologists who have begun or aim to begin a PAE practice with the information they need to know regarding PSA levels and prostate cancer risk stratification for this patient population.

Honing in on PARPi Response in Prostate Cancer: from HR Pathway to Gene-by-Gene Granularity

PARP inhibitors (PARPi) are promising in BRCA2-altered prostate cancer. Data were presented on PARPi efficacy in prostate cancers with alterations in other DNA damage repair genes which suggest low response rates in ATM-, CHEK2-, CDK12-altered tumors and promising results in PALB2-, RAD51B-, FANCA-, and BRIP1-altered tumors.See related article by Abida et al., p. 2487.