Use of Red Beet (Beta vulgaris L.) for Antimicrobial Applications—a Critical Review

Multifaceted chemical and bioactive features of Ag@TiO2 and Ag@SeO2 core/shell nanoparticles biosynthesized using Beta vulgaris L. extract

Due to increasing concerns about environmental impact and toxicity, developing green and sustainable methods for nanoparticle synthesis is attracting significant interest. This work reports the successful green synthesis of silver (Ag), silver-titanium dioxide (Ag@TiO2), and silver-selenium dioxide (Ag@SeO2) nanoparticles (NPs) using Beta vulgaris L. extract. Characterization by XRD, SEM, TEM, and EDX confirmed the successful formation of uniformly distributed spherical NPs with controlled size (25 ± 4.9 nm) and desired elemental composition. All synthesized NPs and the B. vulgaris extract exhibited potent free radical scavenging activity, indicating significant antioxidant potential. However, Ag@SeO2 displayed lower hemocompatibility compared to other NPs, while Ag@SeO2 and the extract demonstrated reduced inflammation in a carrageenan-induced paw edema animal model. Interestingly, Ag@TiO2 and Ag@SeO2 exhibited strong antifungal activity against Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotia sclerotium, as evidenced by TEM and FTIR analyses. Generally, the findings suggest that B. vulgaris-derived NPs possess diverse biological activities with potential applications in various fields such as medicine and agriculture. Ag@TiO2 and Ag@SeO2, in particular, warrant further investigation for their potential as novel bioactive agents.

Genome-wide identification, evolution, and role of SPL gene family in beet (Beta vulgaris L.) under cold stress

BACKGROUND

SPL transcription factors play vital roles in regulating plant growth, development, and abiotic stress responses. Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.), one of the world's main sugar-producing crops, is a major source of edible and industrial sugars for humans. Although the SPL gene family has been extensively identified in other species, no reports on the SPL gene family in sugar beet are available.

RESULTS

Eight BvSPL genes were identified at the whole-genome level and were renamed based on their positions on the chromosome. The gene structure, SBP domain sequences, and phylogenetic relationship with Arabidopsis were analyzed for the sugar beet SPL gene family. The eight BvSPL genes were divided into six groups (II, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII). Of the BvSPL genes, no tandem duplication events were found, but one pair of segmental duplications was present. Multiple cis-regulatory elements related to growth and development were identified in the 2000-bp region upstream of the BvSPL gene start codon (ATG). Using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), the expression profiles of the eight BvSPL genes were examined under eight types of abiotic stress and during the maturation stage. BvSPL transcription factors played a vital role in abiotic stress, with BvSPL3 and BvSPL6 being particularly noteworthy.

CONCLUSION

Eight sugar beet SPL genes were identified at the whole-genome level. Phylogenetic trees, gene structures, gene duplication events, and expression profiles were investigated. The qRT-PCR analysis indicated that BvSPLs play a substantial role in the growth and development of sugar beet, potentially participating in the regulation of root expansion and sugar accumulation.

The Influence of the Vacuum Impregnation, Beetroot Juice, and Various Drying Methods on Selected Properties of Courgette and Broccoli Snacks

The drying process is used in the food industry to extend the shelf life of fruits and vegetables without the use of preservatives. As quality, visual, and aroma characteristics are important determinants of consumer interest, they play a key role in the development of new foods. In the present study, vacuum impregnation (VI) was used prior to vacuum drying (VD) and freeze drying (FD) of courgette and broccoli. Organic beet juice was used to produce the novel snacks. The study showed that the use of vacuum impregnation significantly affected the VOCs profile (volatile organic compounds profile), in which the following compounds were found: viz: 2-(E)-hexen-1-ol, 2-(Z)-hexen-1-ol and aceto-phenone. VI caused a decrease in volumetric gel index (VGI), drying shrinkage (S), water activity (AW), decreased color saturation (∆C), and increased dry matter content (DM). All these properties testify to the positive effect of the pretreatment used. The drying methods used had a significant effect on the properties of the dried vegetables. The dries obtained by the FD method showed higher density and water activity, as well as better preserved color (lower ∆E) and higher VOCs, so it is considered that freeze drying is a suitable method for obtaining novel courgette and broccoli snacks.

Beetroot (Beta vulgaris) Extract against Salmonella Typhimurium via Apoptosis-Like Death and Its Potential for Application in Cooked Pork

Salmonella Typhimurium is a common foodborne pathogen in meat and meat products, causing significant harm and losses to producers and consumers. The aim of this study was to investigate the antibacterial activity and possible mechanisms of beetroot (Beta vulgaris) extract against S. Typhimurium, as well as the application potential in cooked pork. The results suggested beetroot extract could inhibit S. Typhimurium with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 20 mg/mL. After treatment with beetroot extract (1 or 2 MIC), S. Typhimurium exhibited the characteristics of apoptotic-like death (ALD), such as membrane depolarization, phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization, caspase-like protein activation, and DNA fragmentation. Further research has shown that the ALD induced by beetroot extract in S. Typhimurium was caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS) consumption, which was different from most natural products. The treatment of cooked pork with beetroot extract could reduce the number of S. Typhimurium, lower pH, defer lipid oxidation, and improve the colour. These results indicate that beetroot extract can inhibit S. Typhimurium through the ALD mechanism and has potential as an antibacterial agent against S. Typhimurium in ready-to-eat meat products.

Depletion of reactive oxygen species induced by beetroot (Beta vulgaris) extract leads to apoptosis-like death in Cronobacter sakazakii

This research aimed to disclose the antibacterial activity of beetroot extract (Beta vulgaris) against Cronobacter sakazakii and its possible mechanisms. We evaluated its antibacterial activity by measuring the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and time-kill kinetics. We also evaluated the intracellular ATP levels, bacterial apoptosis-like death (ALD), and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels to reveal the possible antibacterial mechanisms. Our results showed that the MIC of beetroot extract against C. sakazakii was 25 mg/mL and C. sakazakii (approximately 8 log cfu/mL) was completely inhibited after treatment with 2 MIC of beetroot extract for 3 h. Beetroot extract reduced intracellular ATP levels and facilitated characteristics of ALD in C. sakazakii, such as membrane depolarization, increased intracellular Ca²⁺ levels, phosphatidylserine externalization, caspase-like protein activation, and DNA fragmentation. Additionally, and different from most bacterial ALD caused by the accumulation of ROS, beetroot extract reduced the intracellular ROS levels in C. sakazakii. Our experimental data provide a rationale for further research of bacterial ALD and demonstrate that beetroot extract can inhibit C. sakazakii in food processing environments.

Recent advancements in natural colorants and their application as coloring in food and in intelligent food packaging

Colorants are widely employed in the food industry as an essential ingredient in many products since color is one of the most valued attributes by consumers. Furthermore, the utilization of colorants is currently being extended to the food packaging technologies. The objective of this review was to compile recent information about the main families of natural coloring compounds, and to describe their real implications in food coloring. In addition, their technological use in different food systems (namely, bakery products, beverages, meat and meat products, and dairy products) and their utilization in intelligent packaging to monitor the freshness of foodstuffs with the aim of extending food shelf life and improving food properties was discussed. The potential of using natural colorant in different food to improve their color has been demonstrated, although color stability is still a challenging task. More interestingly, the application of intelligent colorimetric indicators to exhibit color changes with variations in pH can enable real-time monitoring of food quality.

Enhancing bioactive compounds accumulation in red beet (Beta Vulgaris L.) plants by managing N nutrition. The identification of the 'critical' zone as a cultivation technique

The increasing interest in natural health-promoting compounds, which are mostly plant secondary metabolites, inspired attempts to stimulate mechanisms strengthening their bioaccumulation in crop plants via abiotic stress while maintaining the yield potential. This study investigates the long-term effects of limiting nitrogen (N) supply on the concentration of total phenolics, free radical activity of natural antioxidants, betacyanin content, biomass production, net photosynthetic rate, total chlorophyll content, and plant water relations in red beetroot plants (Beta vulgaris L.) grown hydroponically. Depending on fertilization, the range of N supply for evaporative demand comprises two contrasted nutrient zones, in which N is limiting (zone-1) or non-limiting (zone-2). Based on the carbon-nutrient-balance hypothesis, at the transition from 1st-zone to 2nd-zone, there is a narrow transition zone in which the plant nutrient status is considered 'critical'. Herein, to determine the 'critical' zone, a modified Michaelis-Menten (M-M) model was used using a piecewise linear regression on two indexes: net photosynthetic rates and free radical-scavenging capacity of phenolic antioxidants. The model showed that the 'critical' transition points of net photosynthetic rate and phenolic free radical content are located in a narrow zone ranging between 196.70 ± 8.75 and 271.54 ± 75.50 ppm NO₃^-, while the cropping season appears to affect slightly the range of 'critical' (transition) zone. Thus, supplying N to red beetroot plants to levels ranging within this 'critical' zone may be an efficient, profitable and sustainable way to increase the accumulation of health-promoting plant bioactive compounds (total phenolic compounds with radical activity and betacyanins) in hydroponically cultivated reed beetroot plants.

Method Validation and Characterization of Red Pigment in Beta vulgaris Peels and Pomaces by HPLC-UV and UHPLC-MS/MS

Color pigments from plant, animal, or mineral sources can be identified, separated, and quantified for various purposes. It is expected that pigments from Beta vulgaris L. peels and pomaces could be used to develop natural dyes that can find applications in areas such as food or textile dyeing industries. This work aimed at identifying and quantifying the pigment in the B. vulgaris L. peels and pomaces extracts as well as validating the method by high-performance liquid chromatography combined with ultraviolet spectroscopy (HPLC-UV) and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole (TSQ) mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Column chromatography was used to isolate compounds after methanolic solvent extraction. Identification and quantification of the pigments in the extract were achieved using reverse-phase HPLC with a UV detector (538 nm). The UHPLC-MS/MS was used for further confirmation of colored compounds in the extract. Method validation included the use of betanin standard (betanidin 5-β-D-glucopyranoside), determination of repeatability (precision), calibration curve linearity, and sensitivity (LOD and LOQ) tests. Betanin was detected in the sample at retention times of 7.699 and 7.71 minutes, respectively, which closely matched the tR (7.60 min) of the standard, according to HPLC-UV and LC-MS/MS data. The average betanin concentration was 3.81 0.31 mg/g of dry weight, according to the HPLC-UV analysis. The LC-MS/MS data revealed the existence of several compounds, including betanin (4.31 ± 2.15 mg/g), isobetanin (1.85 ± 2.20 mg/g), 2, 17-bidecarboxy-neobetanin (0.71 ± 0.02 mg/g), betanidin (0.71 ± 0.03 mg/g), 2-O-glucosyl-betanin (0.40 ± 0.10 mg/g), and isobetanidin (0.36 ± 1.26 mg/g), among other compounds whose yields were too low. In conclusion, the peels and pomaces of B. vulgaris L. can be a useful source for the extraction of a red dye for use in coloring, such as the dyeing of textile substrates.

Composition, Color Stability and Antioxidant Properties of Betalain-Based Extracts from Bracts of Bougainvillea

Betalains in bracts of Bougainvillea are of great application potential as natural food colorants and antioxidants. This study explored the color, spectra, composition, storage stability, and antioxidant properties of betalain-based Bougainvillea bracts extracts (BBEs) to verify their application value. The results showed that Bougainvillea bract color variance is due to varied contents and proportions of betacyanins (Bc) and betaxanthins (Bx). Bc or Bx alone determined hues of purple or yellow, respectively; the co-existence of Bc and Bx would produce varied hues of red. BBEs showed bright color and good antioxidant properties under a wide pH range. The pH range of 5−6 was optimal for the highest color stability, and pHs 3−8 were optimal for stronger antioxidants. Bc mainly underwent color fading during storage, while Bx easily produced dark precipitates or melanism under strong acidic (pH < 4) or alkaline conditions (pH > 8). However, Bougainvillea Bx showed 3−4 times higher antioxidant ability than Bc. Different considerations for Bc and Bx are needed for varied application purposes. The purple bracts containing only Bc would be more suitable as colorant sources, while additional Bx can bring enhancement of antioxidant ability and richness of Bougainvillea extract color.

Physicochemical, structural and nutritional properties of steamed bread fortified with red beetroot powder and their changes during breadmaking process

Beetroot (Beta vulgaris) is a source of diverse nutrients such as dietary fibers and betalains. Chinese steamed bread (CSB) has gained popularity in recent years. Red beetroot powder (RBP) was added (up to 70%) in wheat flour to make nutritionally fortified CSB. RBP addition greatly decreased specific volume (1.39 to 0.53 mL/g) and staling rate (4.14 to 2.59%), while increasing hardness (2882 to 15056 g) and chewiness (1923 to 3174 g) since RBP affected gluten secondary structure and weakened dough strength. More importantly, CSB containing RBP exhibited improved in vitro antioxidant potential and reduced estimated glycemic index (70.8 to 60.7). The betalains were largely degraded during steaming due to the isomerization of betanin to isobetanin. Sensory analysis showed that wheat flour could be substituted by RBP up to 10% without compromising the eating quality of the CSB. The findings indicated the feasibility of formulating beetroot-fortified foods with enhanced nutritional quality.

FT-IR Analysis of Beta vulgaris Peels and Pomace Dye Extracts and Surface Analysis of Optimally Dyed-Mordanted Cellulosic Fabrics

FT-IR spectroscopy is a nondestructive technique that can be utilized for the qualitative characterization of natural dyes and dyed substrates through structure elucidation. This work aimed at the characterization of natural dye extract from Beta vulgaris peels and pomaces and surface analysis of optimally dyed-mordanted cotton (cellulosic) fabric using Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, as well as colour fastness tests (light, washing, rubbing, and perspiration). Response surface methodology (RSM) was employed in the optimization of dyeing temperature (T), time (t), and pH, as well as applying the relative percent change in colour strength (ΔE) of dyed fabrics as the response. The natural mordants (tannic acid-alum) were compared with synthetic mordants (K2Cr2O7, FeSO4, and CuSO4) using the three mordanting methods. The optimized dyeing parameters were T (55°C), t (75 minutes), and pH (6.5), as a result of comparatively high relative % ΔE (11%). The FT-IR analysis of the extract revealed different characteristic absorption peak values for various functional groups: 3282.82 cm−1 (–OH stretch), 2932.96 cm−1 (C–H stretch), and 1588.91 cm−1 (C=N stretch), among others. The C=N bond stretch biomarks the presence of nitrogen-containing compounds such as the reddish betanin pigments. $p>0.05$ of the dyeing parameters implied that they are not significant but affect dyeing probably alongside other factors such as mordanting. The spectral analysis of bleached and optimally dyed (nonmordanted and mordanted) fabrics revealed varied peaks indicating different functional groups suggesting the presence of cellulose and the binding of mordants with chromophores in the dye extract which yield different shades. Postmordanting showed mean ratings of 4-5 (excellent) among all fastness tests, displayed by tannic acid-alum, FeSO4, and CuSO4. Generally, mordanting resulted in enhanced dye stability and improved colour fastness. To identify specific chromophores in dye extracts and their molecular configurations due to mordants, advanced FT-IR hyphenated systems can be employed.

Prospects and potentials of underutilized leafy Amaranths as vegetable use for health-promotion

Climate change causes environmental variation worldwide, which is one of the most serious threats to global food security. In addition, more than 2 billion people in the world are reported to suffer from serious malnutrition, referred to as 'hidden hunger.' Dependence on only a few crops could lead to the loss of genetic diversity and high fragility of crop breeding in systems adapting to global scale climate change. The exploitation of underutilized species and genetic resources, referred to as orphan crops, could be a useful approach for resolving the issue of adaptability to environmental alteration, biodiversity preservation, and improvement of nutrient quality and quantity to ensure food security. Moreover, the use of these alternative crops will help to increase the human health benefits and the income of farmers in developing countries. In this review, we highlight the potential of orphan crops, especially amaranths, for use as vegetables and health-promoting nutritional components. This review highlights promising diversified sources of amaranth germplasms, their tolerance to abiotic stresses, and their nutritional, phytochemical, and antioxidant values for vegetable purposes. Betalains (betacyanins and betaxanthins), unique antioxidant components in amaranth vegetables, are also highlighted regarding their chemodiversity across amaranth germplasms and their stability and degradation. In addition, we discuss the physiological functions, antioxidant, antilipidemic, anticancer, and antimicrobial activities, as well as the biosynthesis pathway, molecular, biochemical, genetics, and genomic mechanisms of betalains in detail.

Transcriptional response to host chemical cues underpins the expansion of host range in a fungal plant pathogen lineage

The host range of parasites is an important factor in assessing the dynamics of disease epidemics. The evolution of pathogens to accommodate new hosts may lead to host range expansion, a process the molecular bases of which are largely enigmatic. The fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum has been reported to parasitize more than 400 plant species from diverse eudicot families while its close relative, S. trifoliorum, is restricted to plants from the Fabaceae family. We analyzed S. sclerotiorum global transcriptome reprogramming on hosts from six botanical families and reveal a flexible, host-specific transcriptional program. We generated a chromosome-level genome assembly for S. trifoliorum and found near-complete gene space conservation in two representative strains of broad and narrow host range Sclerotinia species. However, S. trifoliorum showed increased sensitivity to the Brassicaceae defense compound camalexin. Comparative analyses revealed a lack of transcriptional response to camalexin in the S. trifoliorum strain and suggest that regulatory variation in detoxification and effector genes at the population level may associate with the genetic accommodation of Brassicaceae in the Sclerotinia host range. Our work proposes transcriptional plasticity and the co-existence of signatures for generalist and polyspecialist adaptive strategies in the genome of a plant pathogen.

An Insight into the Abiotic Stress Responses of Cultivated Beets (Beta vulgaris L.)

Cultivated beets (sugar beets, fodder beets, leaf beets, and garden beets) belonging to the species Beta vulgaris L. are important sources for many products such as sugar, bioethanol, animal feed, human nutrition, pulp residue, pectin extract, and molasses. Beta maritima L. (sea beet or wild beet) is a halophytic wild ancestor of all cultivated beets. With a requirement of less water and having shorter growth period than sugarcane, cultivated beets are preferentially spreading from temperate regions to subtropical countries. The beet cultivars display tolerance to several abiotic stresses such as salt, drought, cold, heat, and heavy metals. However, many environmental factors adversely influence growth, yield, and quality of beets. Hence, selection of stress-tolerant beet varieties and knowledge on the response mechanisms of beet cultivars to different abiotic stress factors are most required. The present review discusses morpho-physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses of cultivated beets (B. vulgaris L.) to different abiotic stresses including alkaline, cold, heat, heavy metals, and UV radiation. Additionally, we describe the beet genes reported for their involvement in response to these stress conditions.

Antimycotoxigenic Activity of Beetroot Extracts against Alternaria alternata Mycotoxins on Potato Crop

Alternaria species, mainly air-borne fungi, affect potato plants, causing black spots symptoms. Morphological identification, pathogenicity assessment, and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) molecular identification confirmed that all isolates were Alternaria alternata. The annotated sequences were deposited in GenBank under accession numbers MN592771–MN592777. HPLC analysis revealed that the fungal isolates KH3 (133,200 ng/g) and NO3 (212,000 ng/g) produced higher levels of tenuazonic acid (TeA) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), respectively. Beet ethanol extract (BEE) and beet methanol extract (BME) at different concentrations were used as antimycotoxins. BME decreased the production of mycotoxins by 66.99–99.79%. The highest TeA reduction rate (99.39%) was reported in the KH3 isolate with 150 µg/mL BME treatment. In comparison, the most effective AME reduction rate (99.79%) was shown in the NO3 isolate with 150 µg/mL BME treatment. In the same way, BEE application resulted in 95.60–99.91% mycotoxin reduction. The highest TeA reduction rate (99.91%) was reported in the KH3 isolate with 150 µg/mL BEE treatment, while the greatest AME reduction rate (99.68%) was shown in the Alam1 isolate with 75 µg/mL BEE treatment. GC-MS analysis showed that the main constituent in BME was the antioxidant compound 1-dodecanamine, n,n-dimethyl with a peak area of 43.75%. In contrast, oxirane, methyl- (23.22%); hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester (10.72%); and n-hexadecanoic acid (7.32%) were the main components in BEE found by GC-MS. They are probably antimicrobial molecules and have an effect on the mycotoxin in general. To our knowledge, this is the first study describing the antimycotoxigenic activity of beet extracts against A. alternata mycotoxins-contaminated potato crops in Egypt, aimed to manage and save the environment.

Biological Properties and Applications of Betalains

Betalains are water-soluble pigments present in vacuoles of plants of the order Caryophyllales and in mushrooms of the genera Amanita, Hygrocybe and Hygrophorus. Betalamic acid is a constituent of all betalains. The type of betalamic acid substituent determines the class of betalains. The betacyanins (reddish to violet) contain a cyclo-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (cyclo-DOPA) residue while the betaxanthins (yellow to orange) contain different amino acid or amine residues. The most common betacyanin is betanin (Beetroot Red), present in red beets Beta vulgaris, which is a glucoside of betanidin. The structure of this comprehensive review is as follows: Occurrence of Betalains; Structure of Betalains; Spectroscopic and Fluorescent Properties; Stability; Antioxidant Activity; Bioavailability, Health Benefits; Betalains as Food Colorants; Food Safety of Betalains; Other Applications of Betalains; and Environmental Role and Fate of Betalains.

Red Beetroot. A Potential Source of Natural Additives for the Meat Industry

Currently, the food industry is looking for alternatives to synthetic additives in processed food products, so research investigating new sources of compounds with high biological activity is worthwhile and becoming more common. There are many different types of vegetables that contain bioactive compounds, and additional features of some vegetables include uses as natural colorants and antioxidants. In this sense, and due to the special composition of beetroot, the use of this vegetable allows for the extraction of a large number of compounds with special interest to the meat industry. This includes colorants (betalains), antioxidants (betalains and phenolic compounds), and preservatives (nitrates), which can be applied for the reformulation of meat products, thus limiting the number and quantity of synthetic additives added to these foods and, at the same time, increase their shelf-life. Despite all these benefits, the application of beetroot or its products (extracts, juice, powder, etc.) in the meat industry is very limited, and the body of available research on beetroot as an ingredient is scarce. Therefore, in this review, the main biologically active compounds present in beetroot, the implications and benefits that their consumption has for human health, as well as studies investigating the use beetroot in the reformulation of meat and meat products are presented in a comprehensible manner.

Red Beetroot Betalains: Perspectives on Extraction, Processing, and Potential Health Benefits

In recent years, red beetroot has received a growing interest due to its abundant source of bioactive compounds, particularly betalains. Red beetroot betalains have great potential as a functional food ingredient employed in the food and medical industry due to their diverse health-promoting effects. Betalains from red beetroot are natural pigments, which mainly include either yellow-orange betaxanthins or red-violet betacyanins. However, betalains are quite sensitive toward heat, pH, light, and oxygen, which leads to the poor stability during processing and storage. Therefore, it is necessary to comprehend the impacts of the processing approaches on betalains. In this review, the effective extraction and processing methods of betalains from red beetroot were emphatically reviewed. Furthermore, a variety of recently reported bioactivities of beetroot betalains were also summarized. The present work can provide a comprehensive review on both conventional and innovative extraction techniques, processing methods, and the stability of betalains.

Research Progress of Betalain in Response to Adverse Stresses and Evolutionary Relationship Compared with Anthocyanin

Betalains are applicable to many aspects of life, and their properties, characteristics, extraction and biosynthesis process have been thoroughly studied. Although betalains are functionally similar to anthocyanins and can substitute for them to provide pigments for plant color, it is rare to study the roles of betalains in plant responses to adverse environmental conditions. Owing to their antioxidant capability to remove excess reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plants and humans, betalains have attracted much attention due to their bioactivity. In addition, betalains can also act as osmotic substances to regulate osmotic pressure in plants and play important roles in plant responses to adverse environmental conditions. The study of the physiological evolution of betalains is almost complete but remains complicated because the evolutionary relationship between betalains and anthocyanins is still uncertain. In this review, to provide a reference for the in-depth study of betalains compared with anthocyanins, the biochemical properties, biosynthesis process and roles of betalains in response to environmental stress are reviewed, and the relationship between betalains and anthocyanins is discussed.