1
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Chitin whiskers enhanced methacrylated hydroxybutyl chitosan hydrogels as anti-deformation scaffold for 3D cell culture. Carbohydr Polym 2023; 304:120483. [PMID: 36641181 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.120483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogel, as three-dimensional (3D) cell culture scaffold, is an effective strategy for tissue and organ regeneration due to their good biocompatibility, biodegradability and resemblance to body microenvironments in vivo. However, the inherent weak mechanical properties and strong shrinkage of hydrogels during cell culture hinder its application in clinical. In this study, a two-component thermo/photo dual-sensitive hydrogel (M/C) was prepared from methacrylated hydroxybutyl chitosan (MHBC) and chitin whisker (CHW) via physical and chemical cross-linking methods. M/C hydrogel showed a special internal structure with lamellar arrangement. The rheological properties of the hydrogels could be regulated with the change of M/C ratio. It is worth emphasizing that the mechanical properties, shrinkage resistance and cellular capacitances of the M/C hydrogel were improved with the addition of CHW. Moreover, the M/C hydrogel not only exhibited excellent degradability and antibacterial properties, but also significantly promoted the adhesion and proliferation of MC3T3-E1 cells in vitro. Therefore, the M/C hydrogel showed a wide application potential in tissue regeneration as a 3D cell culture scaffold.
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2
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Sungkhaphan P, Risangud N, Hankamolsiri W, Sonthithai P, Janvikul W. Pluronic-F127 and Click chemistry-based injectable biodegradable hydrogels with controlled mechanical properties for cell encapsulation. REACT FUNCT POLYM 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2022.105439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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3
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Galarraga JH, Locke RC, Witherel CE, Stoeckl BD, Castilho M, Mauck RL, Malda J, Levato R, Burdick JA. Fabrication of MSC-laden composites of hyaluronic acid hydrogels reinforced with MEW scaffolds for cartilage repair. Biofabrication 2021; 14. [PMID: 34788748 DOI: 10.1088/1758-5090/ac3acb] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogels are of interest in cartilage tissue engineering due to their ability to support the encapsulation and chondrogenesis of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs). However, features such as hydrogel crosslink density, which can influence nutrient transport, nascent matrix distribution, and the stability of constructs during and after implantation must be considered in hydrogel design. Here, we first demonstrate that more loosely crosslinked (i.e. softer, ∼2 kPa) norbornene-modified hyaluronic acid (NorHA) hydrogels support enhanced cartilage formation and maturation when compared to more densely crosslinked (i.e. stiffer, ∼6-60 kPa) hydrogels, with a >100-fold increase in compressive modulus after 56 d of culture. While soft NorHA hydrogels mature into neocartilage suitable for the repair of articular cartilage, their initial moduli are too low for handling and they do not exhibit the requisite stability needed to withstand the loading environments of articulating joints. To address this, we reinforced NorHA hydrogels with polycaprolactone (PCL) microfibers produced via melt-electrowriting (MEW). Importantly, composites fabricated with MEW meshes of 400µm spacing increased the moduli of soft NorHA hydrogels by ∼50-fold while preserving the chondrogenic potential of the hydrogels. There were minimal differences in chondrogenic gene expression and biochemical content (e.g. DNA, GAG, collagen) between hydrogels alone and composites, whereas the composites increased in compressive modulus to ∼350 kPa after 56 d of culture. Lastly, integration of composites with native tissue was assessedex vivo; MSC-laden composites implanted after 28 d of pre-culture exhibited increased integration strengths and contact areas compared to acellular composites. This approach has great potential towards the design of cell-laden implants that possess both initial mechanical integrity and the ability to support neocartilage formation and integration for cartilage repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan H Galarraga
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
| | - Ryan C Locke
- Translational Musculoskeletal Research Center, Philadelphia VA Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America.,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
| | - Claire E Witherel
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
| | - Brendan D Stoeckl
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America.,Translational Musculoskeletal Research Center, Philadelphia VA Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America.,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
| | - Miguel Castilho
- Department of Orthopaedics, University Medical Center-Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Technical University of Eindhoven, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Robert L Mauck
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America.,Translational Musculoskeletal Research Center, Philadelphia VA Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America.,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
| | - Jos Malda
- Department of Orthopaedics, University Medical Center-Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Clinical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Riccardo Levato
- Department of Orthopaedics, University Medical Center-Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Clinical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jason A Burdick
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
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4
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Chen T, Weng W, Liu Y, Aspera-Werz RH, Nüssler AK, Xu J. Update on Novel Non-Operative Treatment for Osteoarthritis: Current Status and Future Trends. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:755230. [PMID: 34603064 PMCID: PMC8481638 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.755230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a leading cause of pain and disability which results in a reduced quality of life. Due to the avascular nature of cartilage, damaged cartilage has a finite capacity for healing or regeneration. To date, conservative management, including physical measures and pharmacological therapy are still the principal choices offered for OA patients. Joint arthroplasties or total replacement surgeries are served as the ultimate therapeutic option to rehabilitate the joint function of patients who withstand severe OA. However, these approaches are mainly to relieve the symptoms of OA, instead of decelerating or reversing the progress of cartilage damage. Disease-modifying osteoarthritis drugs (DMOADs) aiming to modify key structures within the OA joints are in development. Tissue engineering is a promising strategy for repairing cartilage, in which cells, genes, and biomaterials are encompassed. Here, we review the current status of preclinical investigations and clinical translations of tissue engineering in the non-operative treatment of OA. Furthermore, this review provides our perspective on the challenges and future directions of tissue engineering in cartilage regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Chen
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China.,Department of Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, BG Trauma Center Tübingen, Siegfried Weller Institute for Trauma Research, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Weidong Weng
- Department of Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, BG Trauma Center Tübingen, Siegfried Weller Institute for Trauma Research, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Orthopedics, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Romina H Aspera-Werz
- Department of Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, BG Trauma Center Tübingen, Siegfried Weller Institute for Trauma Research, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas K Nüssler
- Department of Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, BG Trauma Center Tübingen, Siegfried Weller Institute for Trauma Research, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Jianzhong Xu
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
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5
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Vernerey FJ, Lalitha Sridhar S, Muralidharan A, Bryant SJ. Mechanics of 3D Cell-Hydrogel Interactions: Experiments, Models, and Mechanisms. Chem Rev 2021; 121:11085-11148. [PMID: 34473466 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogels are highly water-swollen molecular networks that are ideal platforms to create tissue mimetics owing to their vast and tunable properties. As such, hydrogels are promising cell-delivery vehicles for applications in tissue engineering and have also emerged as an important base for ex vivo models to study healthy and pathophysiological events in a carefully controlled three-dimensional environment. Cells are readily encapsulated in hydrogels resulting in a plethora of biochemical and mechanical communication mechanisms, which recapitulates the natural cell and extracellular matrix interaction in tissues. These interactions are complex, with multiple events that are invariably coupled and spanning multiple length and time scales. To study and identify the underlying mechanisms involved, an integrated experimental and computational approach is ideally needed. This review discusses the state of our knowledge on cell-hydrogel interactions, with a focus on mechanics and transport, and in this context, highlights recent advancements in experiments, mathematical and computational modeling. The review begins with a background on the thermodynamics and physics fundamentals that govern hydrogel mechanics and transport. The review focuses on two main classes of hydrogels, described as semiflexible polymer networks that represent physically cross-linked fibrous hydrogels and flexible polymer networks representing the chemically cross-linked synthetic and natural hydrogels. In this review, we highlight five main cell-hydrogel interactions that involve key cellular functions related to communication, mechanosensing, migration, growth, and tissue deposition and elaboration. For each of these cellular functions, recent experiments and the most up to date modeling strategies are discussed and then followed by a summary of how to tune hydrogel properties to achieve a desired functional cellular outcome. We conclude with a summary linking these advancements and make the case for the need to integrate experiments and modeling to advance our fundamental understanding of cell-matrix interactions that will ultimately help identify new therapeutic approaches and enable successful tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franck J Vernerey
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado at Boulder, 1111 Engineering Drive, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0428, United States.,Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado at Boulder, 4001 Discovery Drive, Boulder, Colorado 80309-613, United States
| | - Shankar Lalitha Sridhar
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado at Boulder, 1111 Engineering Drive, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0428, United States
| | - Archish Muralidharan
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado at Boulder, 4001 Discovery Drive, Boulder, Colorado 80309-613, United States
| | - Stephanie J Bryant
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado at Boulder, 4001 Discovery Drive, Boulder, Colorado 80309-613, United States.,Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado at Boulder, 3415 Colorado Avenue, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0596, United States.,BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado at Boulder, 3415 Colorado Avenue, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0596, United States
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6
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León-Campos MI, Claudio-Rizo JA, Rodriguez-Fuentes N, Cabrera-Munguía DA, Becerra-Rodriguez JJ, Herrera-Guerrero A, Soriano-Corral F. Biocompatible interpenetrating polymeric networks in hydrogel state comprised from jellyfish collagen and polyurethane. JOURNAL OF POLYMER RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10965-021-02654-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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7
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Zarrintaj P, Khodadadi Yazdi M, Youssefi Azarfam M, Zare M, Ramsey JD, Seidi F, Reza Saeb M, Ramakrishna S, Mozafari M. Injectable Cell-Laden Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering: Recent Advances and Future Opportunities. Tissue Eng Part A 2021; 27:821-843. [PMID: 33779319 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2020.0341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue engineering intends to create functionalized tissues/organs for regenerating the injured parts of the body using cells and scaffolds. A scaffold as a supporting substrate affects the cells' fate and behavior, including growth, proliferation, migration, and differentiation. Hydrogel as a biomimetic scaffold plays an important role in cellular behaviors and tissue repair, providing a microenvironment close to the extracellular matrix with adjustable mechanical and chemical features that can provide sufficient nutrients and oxygen. To enhance the hydrogel performance and compatibility with native niche, the cell-laden hydrogel is an attractive choice to mimic the function of the targeted tissue. Injectable hydrogels, due to the injectability, are ideal options for in vivo minimally invasive treatment. Cell-laden injectable hydrogels can be utilized for tissue regeneration in a noninvasive way. This article reviews the recent advances and future opportunities of cell-laden injectable hydrogels and their functions in tissue engineering. It is expected that this strategy allows medical scientists to develop a minimally invasive method for tissue regeneration in clinical settings. Impact statement Cell-laden hydrogels have been vastly utilized in biomedical application, especially tissue engineering. It is expected that this upcoming review article will be a motivation for the community. Although this strategy is still in its early stages, this concept is so alluring that it has attracted all scientists in the community and specialists at academic health centers. Certainly, this approach requires more development, and a bunch of crucial challenges have yet to be solved. In this review, we discuss this various aspects of this approach, the questions that must be answered, the expectations associated with it, and rational restrictions to develop injectable cell-laden hydrogels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Payam Zarrintaj
- School of Chemical Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA
| | | | | | - Mehrak Zare
- Skin and Stem Cell Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Joshua D Ramsey
- School of Chemical Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Farzad Seidi
- Provincial Key Lab of Pulp and Paper Science and Technology and Joint International Research Lab of Lignocellulosic Functional Materials, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Mohammad Reza Saeb
- Center of Excellence in Electrochemistry, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seeram Ramakrishna
- Center for Nanofibers and Nanotechnology, Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Initiative, and Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Masoud Mozafari
- Department of Tissue Engineering & Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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8
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Richardson BM, Walker CJ, Maples MM, Randolph MA, Bryant SJ, Anseth KS. Mechanobiological Interactions between Dynamic Compressive Loading and Viscoelasticity on Chondrocytes in Hydrazone Covalent Adaptable Networks for Cartilage Tissue Engineering. Adv Healthc Mater 2021; 10:e2002030. [PMID: 33738966 PMCID: PMC8785214 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202002030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Mechanobiological cues influence chondrocyte biosynthesis and are often used in tissue engineering applications to improve the repair of articular cartilage in load-bearing joints. In this work, the biophysical effects of an applied dynamic compression on chondrocytes encapsulated in viscoelastic hydrazone covalent adaptable networks (CANs) is explored. Here, hydrazone CANs exhibit viscoelastic loss tangents ranging from (9.03 ± 0.01) 10-4 to (1.67 ± 0.09) 10-3 based on the molar percentages of alkyl-hydrazone and benzyl-hydrazone crosslinks. Notably, viscoelastic alkyl-hydrazone crosslinks improve articular cartilage specific gene expression showing higher SOX9 expression in free swelling hydrogels and dynamic compression reduces hypertrophic chondrocyte markers (COL10A1, MMP13) in hydrazone CANs. Interestingly, dynamic compression also improves matrix biosynthesis in elastic benzyl-hydrazone controls but reduces biosynthesis in viscoelastic alkyl-hydrazone CANs. Additionally, intermediate levels of viscoelastic adaptability demonstrate the highest levels of matrix biosynthesis in hydrazone CANs, demonstrating on average 70 ± 4 µg of sulfated glycosaminoglycans per day and 31 ± 3 µg of collagen per day over one month in dynamic compression bioreactors. Collectively, the results herein demonstrate the role of matrix adaptability and viscoelasticity on chondrocytes in hydrazone CANs during dynamic compression, which may prove useful for tissue engineering applications in load-bearing joints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin M Richardson
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, 3415 Colorado Ave, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, 3415 Colorado Ave, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - Cierra J Walker
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, 3415 Colorado Ave, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado Boulder, 4001 Discovery Drive, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - Mollie M Maples
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, 3415 Colorado Ave, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, 3415 Colorado Ave, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - Mark A Randolph
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit St, WAC 435, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 15 Parkman St, WACC 453, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Stephanie J Bryant
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, 3415 Colorado Ave, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, 3415 Colorado Ave, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado Boulder, 4001 Discovery Drive, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - Kristi S Anseth
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, 3415 Colorado Ave, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, 3415 Colorado Ave, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
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9
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Nie J, Fu J, He Y. Hydrogels: The Next Generation Body Materials for Microfluidic Chips? SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2020; 16:e2003797. [PMID: 33103353 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202003797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The integration of microfluidics with biomedical research is confronted with considerable limitations due to its body materials. With high content of water, hydrogels own superior biocompatibility and degradability. Can hydrogels become another material choice for the construction of microfluidic chips, particularly biofluidics? The present review aims to systematically establish the concept of hydrogel-based microfluidic chips (HMCs) and address three main concerns: i) why choosing hydrogels? ii) how to fabricate HMCs?, and iii) in which fields to apply HMCs? It is envisioned that hydrogels may be used increasingly as substitute for traditional materials and gradually act as the body material for microfluidic chips. The modifications of conventional process are highlighted to overcome issues arising from the incompatibility between the construction methods and hydrogel materials. Specifically targeting at the "soft and wet" hydrogels, an efficient flowchart of "i) high resolution template printing; ii) damage-free demolding; iii) twice-crosslinking bonding" is proposed. Accordingly, a broader microfluidic chip concept is proposed in terms of form and function. Potential biomedical applications of HMCs are discussed. This review also highlights the challenges arising from the material replacement, as well as the future directions of the proposed concept. Finally, the authors' viewpoints and perspectives for this emerging field are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Nie
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
- Key Laboratory of 3D Printing Process and Equipment of Zhejiang Province, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Jianzhong Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
- Key Laboratory of 3D Printing Process and Equipment of Zhejiang Province, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
| | - Yong He
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
- Key Laboratory of 3D Printing Process and Equipment of Zhejiang Province, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China
- Key Laboratory of Materials Processing and Mold, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450002, China
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10
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Guo Y, Du S, Quan S, Jiang F, Yang C, Li J. Effects of biophysical cues of 3D hydrogels on mesenchymal stem cells differentiation. J Cell Physiol 2020; 236:2268-2275. [PMID: 32885847 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.30042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2020] [Revised: 08/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
For stem cell research, three-dimensional (3D) hydrogels are increasingly recognized as more physiological systems than two-dimensional culture plates due to bidirectional and 3D interaction of stem cells and surrounding matrix. Among various stem cells, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are one of the most widely applied from bench to bedside. In 3D hydrogels, MSCs are allowed to actively remodel the surrounding matrix through proteolytic degradation and cell-exerted force, which highly resembles in vivo situation. Notably, factors affecting hydrogel modifiability including matrix viscoelasticity and matrix degradability have been found to regulate adhesion, morphology, and fate decision of MSCs. In addition, MSCs within 3D hydrogels have been found to employ multiple mechanotransduction mechanisms including not only the classic integrin-actomyosin cytoskeleton system but also ion channels, microtubule cytoskeleton, and self-secreted proteinaceous matrix. This review summarizes the effects of biophysical cues on MSCs differentiation in 3D hydrogels and underlying mechanobiology in a hope to update our readers' understanding of stem cell biology and guide tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yutong Guo
- Department of Orthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, West China School of Stomatology, State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Shufang Du
- Department of Orthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, West China School of Stomatology, State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Shuqi Quan
- Department of Orthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, West China School of Stomatology, State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Fulin Jiang
- Department of Orthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, West China School of Stomatology, State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Cai Yang
- Department of Orthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, West China School of Stomatology, State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Juan Li
- Department of Orthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, West China School of Stomatology, State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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11
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Wu J, Chen Q, Deng C, Xu B, Zhang Z, Yang Y, Lu T. Exquisite design of injectable Hydrogels in Cartilage Repair. Theranostics 2020; 10:9843-9864. [PMID: 32863963 PMCID: PMC7449920 DOI: 10.7150/thno.46450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cartilage damage is still a threat to human beings, yet there is currently no treatment available to fully restore the function of cartilage. Recently, due to their unique structures and properties, injectable hydrogels have been widely studied and have exhibited high potential for applications in therapeutic areas, especially in cartilage repair. In this review, we briefly introduce the properties of cartilage, some articular cartilage injuries, and now available treatment strategies. Afterwards, we propose the functional and fundamental requirements of injectable hydrogels in cartilage tissue engineering, as well as the main advantages of injectable hydrogels as a therapy for cartilage damage, including strong plasticity and excellent biocompatibility. Moreover, we comprehensively summarize the polymers, cells, and bioactive molecules regularly used in the fabrication of injectable hydrogels, with two kinds of gelation, i.e., physical and chemical crosslinking, which ensure the excellent design of injectable hydrogels for cartilage repair. We also include novel hybrid injectable hydrogels combined with nanoparticles. Finally, we conclude with the advances of this clinical application and the challenges of injectable hydrogels used in cartilage repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiawei Wu
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, Northwestern Polytechnical University School of Life Sciences
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education. Faculty of Life Sciences, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Qi Chen
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education. Faculty of Life Sciences, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Chao Deng
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, 277 Yanta West Road, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Baoping Xu
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education. Faculty of Life Sciences, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Zeiyan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education. Faculty of Life Sciences, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education. Faculty of Life Sciences, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Tingli Lu
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, Northwestern Polytechnical University School of Life Sciences
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12
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Schneider MC, Lalitha Sridhar S, Vernerey FJ, Bryant SJ. Spatiotemporal neocartilage growth in matrix-metalloproteinase-sensitive poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels under dynamic compressive loading: an experimental and computational approach. J Mater Chem B 2020; 8:2775-2791. [PMID: 32155233 PMCID: PMC7695218 DOI: 10.1039/c9tb02963j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Enzyme-sensitive hydrogels containing encapsulated chondrocytes are a promising platform for cartilage tissue engineering. However, the growth of neotissue is closely coupled to the degradation of the hydrogel and is further complicated due to the encapsulated cells serving as the enzyme source for hydrogel degradation. To better understand these coupled processes, this study combined experimental and computational methods to analyze the transition from hydrogel to neotissue in a biomimetic MMP-sensitive poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogel with encapsulated chondrocytes. A physics-based computational model that describes spatial heterogeneities in cell distribution was used. Experimentally, cell-laden hydrogels were cultured for six weeks under free swelling or subjected daily to one-hour of dynamic compressive loading. Extracellular matrix (ECM) synthesis rates were used as model inputs, and the model was fit to the experimentally determined construct modulus over time for the free swelling condition. Experimentally, ECM accumulation comprising collagen II and aggrecan increased over time concomitant with hydrogel degradation observed by a loss in PEG. Simulations demonstrated rapid degradation in regions of high cell density (i.e., cell clusters) reaching complete degradation by day 13, which facilitated localized ECM growth. Regions of low cell density degraded more slowly, had limited ECM, and led to the decrease in construct modulus during the first two weeks. The primary difference between the two culture environments was greater ECM accumulation in the clusters under free swelling, which facilitated a faster recovery in construct modulus. By 6 weeks the compressive modulus increased 2.5-fold to 107 kPa under free swelling, but dropped 1.6-fold to 26 kPa under loading. In summary, this biomimetic MMP-sensitive hydrogel supports neocartilage growth by facilitating rapid ECM growth within cell clusters, which was followed by slower growth in the rest of the hydrogel. Subtle temporal differences in hydrogel degradation and ECM accumulation, however, had a significant impact on the evolving mechanical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret C Schneider
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, 3415 Colorado Ave., Boulder, Colorado 80309-0596, USA.
| | - Shankar Lalitha Sridhar
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, 1111 Engineering Dr., Boulder, Colorado 80309-0596, USA.
| | - Franck J Vernerey
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, 1111 Engineering Dr., Boulder, Colorado 80309-0596, USA. and Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado, 3415 Colorado Ave., Boulder, Colorado 80309-0596, USA
| | - Stephanie J Bryant
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, 3415 Colorado Ave., Boulder, Colorado 80309-0596, USA. and Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado, 3415 Colorado Ave., Boulder, Colorado 80309-0596, USA and Biofrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, 3415 Colorado Ave., Boulder, Colorado 80309-0596, USA
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13
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Galarraga JH, Kwon MY, Burdick JA. 3D bioprinting via an in situ crosslinking technique towards engineering cartilage tissue. Sci Rep 2019; 9:19987. [PMID: 31882612 PMCID: PMC6934815 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-56117-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
3D bioprinting is a promising approach for the repair of cartilage tissue after damage due to injury or disease; however, the design of 3D printed scaffolds has been limited by the availability of bioinks with requisite printability, cytocompatibility, and bioactivity. To address this, we developed an approach termed in situ crosslinking that permits the printing of non-viscous, photocrosslinkable bioinks via the direct-curing of the bioink with light through a photopermeable capillary prior to deposition. Using a norbornene-modified hyaluronic acid (NorHA) macromer as a representative bioink and our understanding of thiol-ene curing kinetics with visible light, we varied the printing parameters (e.g., capillary length, flow rate, light intensity) to identify printing conditions that were optimal for the ink. The printing process was cytocompatible, with high cell viability and homogenous distribution of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) observed throughout printed constructs. Over 56 days of culture in chondrogenic media, printed constructs increased in compressive moduli, biochemical content (i.e., sulfated glycosaminoglycans, collagen), and histological staining of matrix associated with cartilage tissue. This generalizable printing approach may be used towards the repair of focal defects in articular cartilage or broadly towards widespread biomedical applications across a range of photocrosslinkable bioinks that can now be printed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan H Galarraga
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Mi Y Kwon
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Jason A Burdick
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
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Meng W, Gao L, Venkatesan JK, Wang G, Madry H, Cucchiarini M. Translational applications of photopolymerizable hydrogels for cartilage repair. J Exp Orthop 2019; 6:47. [PMID: 31807962 PMCID: PMC6895316 DOI: 10.1186/s40634-019-0215-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Articular cartilage lesions generated by trauma or osteoarthritis are the most common causes of pain and disability in patients. The development of photopolymerizable hydrogels has allowed for significant advances in cartilage repair procedures. Such three-dimensional (3D) networks of polymers that carry large amounts of water can be created to resemble the physical characteristics of the articular cartilage and be delivered into ill-defined cartilage defects as a liquid solution prior to polymerization in vivo for perfect fit with the surrounding native tissue. These hydrogels offer an adapted environment to encapsulate and propagate regenerative cells in 3D cultures for cartilage repair. Among them, mesenchymal stem cells and chondrocytes may represent the most adapted sources for implantation. They also represent platforms to deliver therapeutic, biologically active factors that promote 3D cell differentiation and maintenance for in vivo repair. CONCLUSION This review presents the benefits of photopolymerization of hydrogels and describes the photoinitiators and materials in current use for enhanced cartilage repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weikun Meng
- Center of Experimental Orthopaedics, Saarland University and Saarland University Medical Center, Homburg/Saar, Germany
- Department of Orthopaedics, West China Hospital, West China School of Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan People’s Republic of China
| | - Liang Gao
- Center of Experimental Orthopaedics, Saarland University and Saarland University Medical Center, Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Jagadeesh K. Venkatesan
- Center of Experimental Orthopaedics, Saarland University and Saarland University Medical Center, Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Guanglin Wang
- Department of Orthopaedics, West China Hospital, West China School of Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan People’s Republic of China
| | - Henning Madry
- Center of Experimental Orthopaedics, Saarland University and Saarland University Medical Center, Homburg/Saar, Germany
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Saarland University and Saarland University Medical Center, Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Magali Cucchiarini
- Center of Experimental Orthopaedics, Saarland University and Saarland University Medical Center, Homburg/Saar, Germany
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15
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Li J, Chen G, Xu X, Abdou P, Jiang Q, Shi D, Gu Z. Advances of injectable hydrogel-based scaffolds for cartilage regeneration. Regen Biomater 2019; 6:129-140. [PMID: 31198581 PMCID: PMC6547311 DOI: 10.1093/rb/rbz022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 03/31/2019] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Articular cartilage is an important load-bearing tissue distributed on the surface of diarthrodial joints. Due to its avascular, aneural and non-lymphatic features, cartilage has limited self-regenerative properties. To date, the utilization of biomaterials to aid in cartilage regeneration, especially through the use of injectable scaffolds, has attracted considerable attention. Various materials, therapeutics and fabrication approaches have emerged with a focus on manipulating the cartilage microenvironment to induce the formation of cartilaginous structures that have similar properties to the native tissues. In particular, the design and fabrication of injectable hydrogel-based scaffolds have advanced in recent years with the aim of enhancing its therapeutic efficacy and improving its ease of administration. This review summarizes recent progress in these efforts, including the structural improvement of scaffolds, network cross-linking techniques and strategies for controlled release, which present new opportunities for the development of injectable scaffolds for cartilage regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiawei Li
- Department of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Drum Tower Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, 321 Zhongshan Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Guojun Chen
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, 410 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles, 8-684 Factor Building, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics, University of California, Los Angeles, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Xingquan Xu
- Department of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Drum Tower Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, 321 Zhongshan Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Peter Abdou
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, 410 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles, 8-684 Factor Building, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics, University of California, Los Angeles, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Qing Jiang
- Department of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Drum Tower Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, 321 Zhongshan Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Dongquan Shi
- Department of Sports Medicine and Adult Reconstructive Surgery, Drum Tower Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, 321 Zhongshan Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Zhen Gu
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, 410 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Los Angeles, 8-684 Factor Building, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Center for Minimally Invasive Therapeutics, University of California, Los Angeles, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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16
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Richardson BM, Wilcox DG, Randolph MA, Anseth KS. Hydrazone covalent adaptable networks modulate extracellular matrix deposition for cartilage tissue engineering. Acta Biomater 2019; 83:71-82. [PMID: 30419278 PMCID: PMC6291351 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2018.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Cartilage tissue engineering strategies often rely on hydrogels with fixed covalent crosslinks for chondrocyte encapsulation, yet the resulting material properties are largely elastic and can impede matrix deposition. To address this limitation, hydrazone crosslinked poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels were formulated to achieve tunable viscoelastic properties and to study how chondrocyte proliferation and matrix deposition vary with the time-dependent material properties of covalent adaptable networks. Hydrazone equilibrium differences were leveraged to produce average stress relaxation times from hours (4.01 × 103 s) to months (2.78 × 106 s) by varying the percentage of alkyl-hydrazone (aHz) and benzyl-hydrazone (bHz) crosslinks. Swelling behavior and degradation associated with adaptability were characterized to quantify temporal network changes that can influence the behavior of encapsulated chondrocytes. After four weeks, mass swelling ratios varied from 36 ± 3 to 17 ± 0.4 and polymer retention ranged from 46 ± 4% to 92 ± 5%, with higher aHz content leading to loss of network connectivity with time. Hydrogels were formulated near the Flory-Stockmayer bHz percolation threshold (17% bHz) to investigate chondrocyte response to distinct levels of covalent architecture adaptability. Four weeks post-encapsulation, formulations with average relaxation times of 3 days (2.6 × 105s) revealed increased cellularity and an interconnected articular cartilage-specific matrix. Chondrocytes embedded in this adaptable formulation (22% bHz) deposited 190 ± 30% more collagen and 140 ± 20% more sulfated glycosaminoglycans compared to the 100% bHz control, which constrained matrix deposition to pericellular space. Collectively, these findings indicate that incorporating highly adaptable aHz crosslinks enhanced regenerative outcomes. However, connected networks containing more stable bHz bonds were required to achieve the highest quality neocartilaginous tissue. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Covalently crosslinked hydrogels provide robust mechanical support for cartilage tissue engineering applications in articulating joints. However, these materials traditionally demonstrate purely elastic responses to deformation despite the dynamic viscoelastic properties of native cartilage tissue. Here, we present hydrazone poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels with tunable viscoelastic properties and study covalent adaptable networks for cartilage tissue engineering. Using hydrazone equilibrium and Flory-Stockmayer theory we identified average relaxation times leading to enhanced regenerative outcomes and showed that extracellular matrix deposition was biphasic as a function of the hydrazone covalent adaptability. We also showed that the incorporation of highly adaptable covalent crosslinks could improve cellularity of neotissue, but that a percolating network of more stable bonds was required to maintain scaffold integrity and form the highest quality neocartilaginous tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin M Richardson
- Dept. Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Jennie Smoly Caruthers Biotechnology Building, 3415 Colorado Ave, Boulder, CO 80303, USA; The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Jennie Smoly Caruthers Biotechnology Building, 3415 Colorado Ave, Boulder, CO 80303, USA.
| | - Daniel G Wilcox
- Dept. Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Jennie Smoly Caruthers Biotechnology Building, 3415 Colorado Ave, Boulder, CO 80303, USA.
| | - Mark A Randolph
- Dept. Orthopedic Surgery, Musculoskeletal Tissue Engineering Labs, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit St, WAC 435, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Div. Plastic Surgery, Plastic Surgery Research Laboratory, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 15 Parkman St, WACC 453, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
| | - Kristi S Anseth
- Dept. Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Jennie Smoly Caruthers Biotechnology Building, 3415 Colorado Ave, Boulder, CO 80303, USA; The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Jennie Smoly Caruthers Biotechnology Building, 3415 Colorado Ave, Boulder, CO 80303, USA.
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17
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Onofrillo C, Duchi S, O'Connell CD, Blanchard R, O'Connor AJ, Scott M, Wallace GG, Choong PFM, Di Bella C. Biofabrication of human articular cartilage: a path towards the development of a clinical treatment. Biofabrication 2018; 10:045006. [PMID: 30088479 DOI: 10.1088/1758-5090/aad8d9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Cartilage injuries cause pain and loss of function, and if severe may result in osteoarthritis (OA). 3D bioprinting is now a tangible option for the delivery of bioscaffolds capable of regenerating the deficient cartilage tissue. Our team has developed a handheld device, the Biopen, to allow in situ additive manufacturing during surgery. Given its ability to extrude in a core/shell manner, the Biopen can preserve cell viability during the biofabrication process, and it is currently the only biofabrication tool tested as a surgical instrument in a sheep model using homologous stem cells. As a necessary step toward the development of a clinically relevant protocol, we aimed to demonstrate that our handheld extrusion device can successfully be used for the biofabrication of human cartilage. Therefore, this study is a required step for the development of a surgical treatment in human patients. In this work we specifically used human adipose derived mesenchymal stem cells (hADSCs), harvested from the infra-patellar fat pad of donor patients affected by OA, to also prove that they can be utilized as the source of cells for the future clinical application. With the Biopen, we generated bioscaffolds made of hADSCs laden in gelatin methacrylate, hyaluronic acid methacrylate and cultured in the presence of chondrogenic stimuli for eight weeks in vitro. A comprehensive characterisation including gene and protein expression analyses, immunohistology, confocal microscopy, second harmonic generation, light sheet imaging, atomic force mycroscopy and mechanical unconfined compression demonstrated that our strategy resulted in human hyaline-like cartilage formation. Our in situ biofabrication approach represents an innovation with important implications for customizing cartilage repair in patients with cartilage injuries and OA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmine Onofrillo
- Department of Surgery, St Vincent's Hospital, University of Melbourne, Clinical Sciences Building, 29 Regent Street, 3065 Fitzroy, VIC, Australia. ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, Intelligent Polymer Research Institute, Innovation Campus, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia. BioFab3D, Aikenhead Centre for Medical Discovery, St Vincent's Hospital, Melbourne, Australia
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18
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Aisenbrey EA, Bryant SJ. A MMP7-sensitive photoclickable biomimetic hydrogel for MSC encapsulation towards engineering human cartilage. J Biomed Mater Res A 2018; 106:2344-2355. [PMID: 29577606 PMCID: PMC6030485 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.36412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Revised: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 03/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Cartilage tissue engineering strategies that use in situ forming degradable hydrogels for mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) delivery are promising for treating chondral defects. Hydrogels that recapitulate aspects of the native tissue have the potential to encourage chondrogenesis, permit cellular mediated degradation, and facilitate tissue growth. This study investigated photoclickable poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels, which were tailored to mimic the cartilage microenvironment by incorporating extracellular matrix analogs, chondroitin sulfate and RGD, and crosslinks sensitive to matrix metalloproteinase 7 (MMP7). Human MSCs were encapsulated in the hydrogel, cultured up to nine weeks, and assessed by mRNA expression, protein production and biochemical analysis. Chondrogenic genes, SOX9, ACAN, and COL2A1, significantly increased with culture time, and the ratios of COL2A1:COL10A1 and SOX9:RUNX2 reached values of ∼20-100 by week 6. The encapsulated MSCs degraded the hydrogel, which was nearly undetectable by week 9. There was substantial deposition of aggrecan and collagen II, which correlated with degradation of the hydrogel. Minimal collagen X was detectable, but collagen I was prevalent. After week 1, extracellular matrix elaboration was accompanied by a ∼twofold increase in compressive modulus with culture time. The MMP7-sensitive cartilage mimetic hydrogel supported MSC chondrogenesis and promoted macroscopic neocartilaginous matrix elaboration representative of fibrocartilage. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 106A: 2344-2355, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Aisenbrey
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - Stephanie J. Bryant
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
- Material Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
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19
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Peng Y, Liu QJ, He T, Ye K, Yao X, Ding J. Degradation rate affords a dynamic cue to regulate stem cells beyond varied matrix stiffness. Biomaterials 2018; 178:467-480. [PMID: 29685517 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2018] [Revised: 03/31/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
While various static cues such as matrix stiffness have been known to regulate stem cell differentiation, it is unclear whether or not dynamic cues such as degradation rate along with the change of material chemistry can influence cell behaviors beyond simple integration of static cues such as decreased matrix stiffness. The present research is aimed at examining effects of degradation rates on adhesion and differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in vitro on well-defined synthetic hydrogel surfaces. Therefore, we synthesized macromers by extending both ends of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) with oligo(lactic acid) and then acryloyl, and the corresponding hydrogels that were obtained after photopolymerization of the macromers were biodegradable. Combining the unique techniques of block copolymer micelle nanolithography with transfer lithography, we prepared a nanoarray of cell-adhesive arginine-glycine-aspartate peptides on this nonfouling biodegradable hydrogel. The biodegradation is caused by hydrolysis of the ester bonds, and different degradation rates in the cell culture medium were achieved by different stages of accelerated pre-hydrolysis in an acidic medium. For the following cell culture and induction, both the matrix stiffness and degradation rate varied among the examined groups. While adipogenic differentiation of MSCs can be understood by the lowered stiffness, the osteogenic differentiation was contradictory with common sense because we found enhanced osteogenesis on soft hydrogels. Higher degradation rates were suggested to account for this interesting phenomenon in the sole osteogenic/adipogenic induction and even more complicated trends in the co-induction. Hence, the degradation rate is a dynamic cue influencing cell behaviors, which should be paid attention to for degradable biomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanmeng Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Qiong-Jie Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Tianlei He
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Kai Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Xiang Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| | - Jiandong Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Department of Macromolecular Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China.
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20
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Aisenbrey EA, Tomaschke A, Kleinjan E, Muralidharan A, Pascual-Garrido C, McLeod RR, Ferguson VL, Bryant SJ. A Stereolithography-Based 3D Printed Hybrid Scaffold for In Situ Cartilage Defect Repair. Macromol Biosci 2018; 18:10.1002/mabi.201700267. [PMID: 29266791 PMCID: PMC5959280 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.201700267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Damage to articular cartilage can over time cause degeneration to the tissue surrounding the injury. To address this problem, scaffolds that prevent degeneration and promote neotissue growth are needed. A new hybrid scaffold that combines a stereolithography-based 3D printed support structure with an injectable and photopolymerizable hydrogel for delivering cells to treat focal chondral defects is introduced. In this proof of concept study, the ability to a) infill the support structure with an injectable hydrogel precursor solution, b) incorporate cartilage cells during infilling using a degradable hydrogel that promotes neotissue deposition, and c) minimize damage to the surrounding cartilage when the hybrid scaffold is placed in situ in a focal chondral defect in an osteochondral plug that is cultured under mechanical loading is demonstrated. With the ability to independently control the properties of the structure and the injectable hydrogel, this hybrid scaffold approach holds promise for treating chondral defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Aisenbrey
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - Andrew Tomaschke
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - Eric Kleinjan
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - Archish Muralidharan
- Material Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | | | - Robert R McLeod
- Department of Electrical, Computing and Energy Engineering, Material Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - Virginia L Ferguson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Material Science and Engineering Program, BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - Stephanie J Bryant
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Material Science and Engineering Program, BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
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21
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Bryant SJ, Vernerey FJ. Programmable Hydrogels for Cell Encapsulation and Neo-Tissue Growth to Enable Personalized Tissue Engineering. Adv Healthc Mater 2018; 7. [PMID: 28975716 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201700605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2017] [Revised: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Biomimetic and biodegradable synthetic hydrogels are emerging as a promising platform for cell encapsulation and tissue engineering. Notably, synthetic-based hydrogels offer highly programmable macroscopic properties (e.g., mechanical, swelling and transport properties) and degradation profiles through control over several tunable parameters (e.g., the initial network structure, degradation kinetics and behavior, and polymer properties). One component to success is the ability to maintain structural integrity as the hydrogel transitions to neo-tissue. This seamless transition is complicated by the fact that cellular activity is highly variable among donors. Thus, computational models provide an important tool in tissue engineering due to their unique ability to explore the coupled processes of hydrogel degradation and neo-tissue growth across multiple length scales. In addition, such models provide new opportunities to develop predictive computational tools to overcome the challenges with designing hydrogels for different donors. In this report, programmable properties of synthetic-based hydrogels and their relation to the hydrogel's structural properties and their evolution with degradation are reviewed. This is followed by recent progress on the development of computational models that describe hydrogel degradation with neo-tissue growth when cells are encapsulated in a hydrogel. Finally, the potential for predictive models to enable patient-specific hydrogel designs for personalized tissue engineering is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie J. Bryant
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering; University of Colorado; 3415 Colorado Ave; Boulder CO 80309-0596 USA
| | - Franck J. Vernerey
- Department of Mechanical Engineering; University of Colorado; 1111 Engineering Dr.; Boulder CO 80309-0428 USA
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22
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Sridhar SL, Schneider MC, Chu S, de Roucy G, Bryant SJ, Vernerey FJ. Heterogeneity is key to hydrogel-based cartilage tissue regeneration. SOFT MATTER 2017; 13:4841-4855. [PMID: 28613313 PMCID: PMC5552053 DOI: 10.1039/c7sm00423k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Degradable hydrogels have been developed to provide initial mechanical support to encapsulated cells while facilitating the growth of neo-tissues. When cells are encapsulated within degradable hydrogels, the process of neo-tissue growth is complicated by the coupled phenomena of transport of large extracellular matrix macromolecules and the rate of hydrogel degradation. If hydrogel degradation is too slow, neo-tissue growth is hindered, whereas if it is too fast, complete loss of mechanical integrity can occur. Therefore, there is a need for effective modelling techniques to predict hydrogel designs based on the growth parameters of the neo-tissue. In this article, hydrolytically degradable hydrogels are investigated due to their promise in tissue engineering. A key output of the model focuses on the ability of the construct to maintain overall structural integrity as the construct transitions from a pure hydrogel to engineered neo-tissue. We show that heterogeneity in cross-link density and cell distribution is the key to this successful transition and ultimately to achieve tissue growth. Specifically, we find that optimally large regions of weak cross-linking around cells in the hydrogel and well-connected and dense cell clusters create the optimum conditions needed for neo-tissue growth while maintaining structural integrity. Experimental observations using cartilage cells encapsulated in a hydrolytically degradable hydrogel are compared with model predictions to show the potential of the proposed model.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Margaret C. Schneider
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, USA
| | - Stanley Chu
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, USA
| | - Gaspard de Roucy
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, USA
| | - Stephanie J. Bryant
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, USA
- Material Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado Boulder, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, USA
| | - Franck J. Vernerey
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, USA
- Material Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado Boulder, USA
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23
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Yang J, Zhang YS, Yue K, Khademhosseini A. Cell-laden hydrogels for osteochondral and cartilage tissue engineering. Acta Biomater 2017; 57:1-25. [PMID: 28088667 PMCID: PMC5545789 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2017.01.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 383] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2016] [Revised: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Despite tremendous advances in the field of regenerative medicine, it still remains challenging to repair the osteochondral interface and full-thickness articular cartilage defects. This inefficiency largely originates from the lack of appropriate tissue-engineered artificial matrices that can replace the damaged regions and promote tissue regeneration. Hydrogels are emerging as a promising class of biomaterials for both soft and hard tissue regeneration. Many critical properties of hydrogels, such as mechanical stiffness, elasticity, water content, bioactivity, and degradation, can be rationally designed and conveniently tuned by proper selection of the material and chemistry. Particularly, advances in the development of cell-laden hydrogels have opened up new possibilities for cell therapy. In this article, we describe the problems encountered in this field and review recent progress in designing cell-hydrogel hybrid constructs for promoting the reestablishment of osteochondral/cartilage tissues. Our focus centers on the effects of hydrogel type, cell type, and growth factor delivery on achieving efficient chondrogenesis and osteogenesis. We give our perspective on developing next-generation matrices with improved physical and biological properties for osteochondral/cartilage tissue engineering. We also highlight recent advances in biomanufacturing technologies (e.g. molding, bioprinting, and assembly) for fabrication of hydrogel-based osteochondral and cartilage constructs with complex compositions and microarchitectures to mimic their native counterparts. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE Despite tremendous advances in the field of regenerative medicine, it still remains challenging to repair the osteochondral interface and full-thickness articular cartilage defects. This inefficiency largely originates from the lack of appropriate tissue-engineered biomaterials that replace the damaged regions and promote tissue regeneration. Cell-laden hydrogel systems have emerged as a promising tissue-engineering platform to address this issue. In this article, we describe the fundamental problems encountered in this field and review recent progress in designing cell-hydrogel constructs for promoting the reestablishment of osteochondral/cartilage tissues. Our focus centers on the effects of hydrogel composition, cell type, and growth factor delivery on achieving efficient chondrogenesis and osteogenesis. We give our perspective on developing next-generation hydrogel/inorganic particle/stem cell hybrid composites with improved physical and biological properties for osteochondral/cartilage tissue engineering. We also highlight recent advances in biomanufacturing and bioengineering technologies (e.g. 3D bioprinting) for fabrication of hydrogel-based osteochondral and cartilage constructs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingzhou Yang
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston 02115, MA, USA; Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510623, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Shrike Zhang
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston 02115, MA, USA; Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Kan Yue
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston 02115, MA, USA; Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Ali Khademhosseini
- Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston 02115, MA, USA; Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Bioindustrial Technologies, College of Animal Bioscience and Technology, Konkuk University, Hwayang-dong, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea; Department of Physics, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21569, Saudi Arabia.
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Chu S, Sridhar SL, Akalp U, Skaalure SC, Vernerey FJ, Bryant SJ. * Understanding the Spatiotemporal Degradation Behavior of Aggrecanase-Sensitive Poly(ethylene glycol) Hydrogels for Use in Cartilage Tissue Engineering. Tissue Eng Part A 2017; 23:795-810. [PMID: 28351221 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2016.0490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Enzyme-sensitive hydrogels are promising cell delivery vehicles for cartilage tissue engineering. However, a better understanding of their spatiotemporal degradation behavior and its impact on tissue growth is needed. The goal of this study was to combine experimental and computational approaches to provide new insights into spatiotemporal changes in hydrogel crosslink density and extracellular matrix (ECM) growth and how these changes influence the evolving macroscopic properties as a function of time. Hydrogels were designed from aggrecanase-sensitive peptide crosslinks using a simple and robust thiol-norbornene photoclick reaction. To study the influence of variations in cellular activity of different donors, chondrocytes were isolated from either juvenile or adult bovine donors. Initial studies were performed to validate and calibrate the model against experiments. Through this process, two key features were identified. These included spatial variations in the hydrogel crosslink density in the immediate vicinity of the cell and the presence of cell clustering within the construct. When these spatial heterogeneities were incorporated into the computational model along with model inputs of initial hydrogel properties and cellular activity (i.e., enzyme and ECM production rates), the model was able to capture the spatial and temporal evolution of ECM growth that was observed experimentally for both donors. In this study, the juvenile chondrocytes produced an interconnected matrix within the cell clusters leading to overall improved ECM growth, while the adult chondrocytes resulted in poor ECM growth. Overall, the computational model was able to capture the spatiotemporal ECM growth of two different donors and provided new insights into the importance of spatial heterogeneities in facilitating ECM growth. Our long-term goal is to use this model to predict optimal hydrogel designs for a wide range of donors and improve cartilage tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanley Chu
- 1 Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado , Boulder, Colorado
| | | | - Umut Akalp
- 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado , Boulder, Colorado
| | - Stacey C Skaalure
- 1 Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado , Boulder, Colorado
| | - Franck J Vernerey
- 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado , Boulder, Colorado.,4 Material Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado , Boulder, Colorado
| | - Stephanie J Bryant
- 1 Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado , Boulder, Colorado.,3 BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado , Boulder, Colorado.,4 Material Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado , Boulder, Colorado
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25
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Schneider MC, Barnes CA, Bryant SJ. Characterization of the chondrocyte secretome in photoclickable poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels. Biotechnol Bioeng 2017; 114:2096-2108. [PMID: 28436002 DOI: 10.1002/bit.26320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Revised: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogels are highly tunable platforms that are promising cell delivery vehicles for chondrocytes and cartilage tissue engineering. In addition to characterizing the type of extracellular matrix (ECM) that forms, understanding the types of proteins that are secreted by encapsulated cells may be important. Thus, the objectives for this study were to characterize the secretome of chondrocytes encapsulated in PEG hydrogels and determine whether the secretome varies as a function of hydrogel stiffness and culture condition. Bovine chondrocytes were encapsulated in photoclickable PEG hydrogels with a compressive modulus of 8 and 46 kPa and cultured under free swelling or dynamic compressive loading conditions. Cartilage ECM deposition was assessed by biochemical assays and immunohistochemistry. The conditioned medium was analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Chondrocytes maintained their phenotype within the hydrogels and deposited cartilage-specific ECM that increased over time and included aggrecan and collagens II and VI. Analysis of the secretome revealed a total of 64 proteins, which were largely similar among all experimental conditions. The identified proteins have diverse functions such as biological regulation, response to stress, and collagen fibril organization. Notably, many of the proteins important to the assembly of a collagen-rich cartilage ECM were identified and included collagen types II(α1), VI (α1, α2, and α3), IX (α1), XI (α1 and α2), and biglycan. In addition, many of the other identified proteins have been reported to be present within cell-secreted exosomes. In summary, chondrocytes encapsulated within photoclickable PEG hydrogels secrete many types of proteins that diffuse out of the hydrogel and which have diverse functions, but which are largely preserved across different hydrogel culture environments. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2017;114: 2096-2108. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret C Schneider
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, 3415 Colorado Ave, Campus Box 596, Boulder 80309, Colorado.,Biofrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado
| | | | - Stephanie J Bryant
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, 3415 Colorado Ave, Campus Box 596, Boulder 80309, Colorado.,Biofrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.,Material Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado
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26
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Fan C, Wang DA. Macroporous Hydrogel Scaffolds for Three-Dimensional Cell Culture and Tissue Engineering. TISSUE ENGINEERING PART B-REVIEWS 2017; 23:451-461. [PMID: 28067115 DOI: 10.1089/ten.teb.2016.0465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogels have been promising candidate scaffolds for cell delivery and tissue engineering due to their tissue-like physical properties and capability for homogeneous cell loading. However, the encapsulated cells are generally entrapped and constrained in the submicron- or nanosized gel networks, seriously limiting cell growth and tissue formation. Meanwhile, the spatially confined settlement inhibits attachment and spreading of anchorage-dependent cells, leading to their apoptosis. In recent years, macroporous hydrogels have attracted increasing attention in use as cell delivery vehicles and tissue engineering scaffolds. The introduction of macropores within gel scaffolds not only improves their permeability for better nutrient transport but also creates space/interface for cell adhesion, proliferation, and extracellular matrix deposition. Herein, we will first review the development of macroporous gel scaffolds and outline the impact of macropores on cell behaviors. In the first part, the advantages and challenges of hydrogels as three-dimensional (3D) cell culture scaffolds will be described. In the second part, the fabrication of various macroporous hydrogels will be presented. Third, the enhancement of cell activities within macroporous gel scaffolds will be discussed. Finally, several crucial factors that are envisaged to propel the improvement of macroporous gel scaffolds are proposed for 3D cell culture and tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changjiang Fan
- 1 Institute for Translational Medicine, College of Medicine, Qingdao University , Qingdao, People's Republic of China
| | - Dong-An Wang
- 2 School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University , Singapore, Singapore
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27
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Wang T, Lai JH, Yang F. Effects of Hydrogel Stiffness and Extracellular Compositions on Modulating Cartilage Regeneration by Mixed Populations of Stem Cells and Chondrocytes In Vivo. Tissue Eng Part A 2016; 22:1348-1356. [PMID: 27676200 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2016.0306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-based therapies offer great promise for repairing cartilage. Previous strategies often involved using a single cell population such as stem cells or chondrocytes. A mixed cell population may offer an alternative strategy for cartilage regeneration while overcoming donor scarcity. We have recently reported that adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) can catalyze neocartilage formation by neonatal chondrocytes (NChons) when mixed co-cultured in 3D hydrogels in vitro. However, it remains unknown how the biochemical and mechanical cues of hydrogels modulate cartilage formation by mixed cell populations in vivo. The present study seeks to answer this question by co-encapsulating ADSCs and NChons in 3D hydrogels with tunable stiffness (∼1-33 kPa) and biochemical cues, and evaluating cartilage formation in vivo using a mouse subcutaneous model. Three extracellular matrix molecules were examined, including chondroitin sulfate (CS), hyaluronic acid (HA), and heparan sulfate (HS). Our results showed that the type of biochemical cue played a dominant role in modulating neocartilage deposition. CS and HA enhanced type II collagen deposition, a desirable phenotype for articular cartilage. In contrast, HS promoted fibrocartilage phenotype with the upregulation of type I collagen and failed to retain newly deposited matrix. Hydrogels with stiffnesses of ∼7-33 kPa led to a comparable degree of neocartilage formation, and a minimal initial stiffness was required to retain hydrogel integrity over time. Results from this study highlight the important role of matrix cues in directing neocartilage formation, and they offer valuable insights in guiding optimal scaffold design for cartilage regeneration by using mixed cell populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyi Wang
- 1 Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University , Stanford, California
| | - Janice H Lai
- 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford School of Medicine , Stanford, California
| | - Fan Yang
- 1 Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University , Stanford, California.,3 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford University , Stanford, California
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28
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Akalp U, Bryant SJ, Vernerey FJ. Tuning tissue growth with scaffold degradation in enzyme-sensitive hydrogels: a mathematical model. SOFT MATTER 2016; 12:7505-20. [PMID: 27548744 PMCID: PMC5341105 DOI: 10.1039/c6sm00583g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Despite tremendous advances in the field of tissue engineering, a number of obstacles remain that hinder its successful translation to the clinic. One challenge that relates to the use of cells encapsulated in a hydrogel is identifying a hydrogel design that can provide an appropriate environment for cells to successfully synthesize and deposit new matrix molecules while providing a mechanical support that can resist physiological loads at the early stage of implementation. A solution to this problem has been to balance tissue growth and hydrogel degradation. However, identifying this balance is difficult due to the complexity of coupling diffusion, deposition, and degradation mechanisms. Very little is known about the complex behavior of these mechanisms, emphasizing the need for a rigorous mathematical approach that can assist and guide experimental advances. To address this issue, this paper discusses a model for interstitial growth based on mixture theory, that can capture the coupling between cell-mediated hydrogel degradation (i.e., hydrogels containing enzyme-sensitive crosslinks) and the transport of extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules released by encapsulated cells within a hydrogel. Taking cartilage tissue engineering as an example, the model investigates the role of enzymatic degradation on ECM diffusion and its impact on two important outcomes: the extent of ECM transport (and deposition) and the evolution of the hydrogel's mechanical integrity. Numerical results based on finite element analysis show that if properly tuned, enzymatic degradation yields the appearance of a highly localized degradation front propagating away from the cell, which can be immediately followed by a front of growing neotissue. We show that this situation is key to maintaining mechanical properties (e.g., stiffness) while allowing for deposition of new ECM molecules. Overall, our study suggests a hydrogel design that could enable successful tissue engineering (e.g., of cartilage, bone, etc.) where mechanical integrity is important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umut Akalp
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Program of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado, USA.
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29
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Neumann AJ, Quinn T, Bryant SJ. Nondestructive evaluation of a new hydrolytically degradable and photo-clickable PEG hydrogel for cartilage tissue engineering. Acta Biomater 2016; 39:1-11. [PMID: 27180026 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2016.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Revised: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Photopolymerizable and hydrolytically labile poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogels formed from photo-clickable reactions were investigated as cell delivery platforms for cartilage tissue engineering (TE). PEG hydrogels were formed from thiol-norbornene PEG macromers whereby the crosslinks contained caprolactone segments with hydrolytically labile ester linkages. Juvenile bovine chondrocytes encapsulated in the hydrogels were cultured for up to four weeks and assessed biochemically and histologically, using standard destructive assays, and for mechanical and ultrasound properties, as nondestructive assays. Bulk degradation of acellular hydrogels was confirmed by a decrease in compressive modulus and an increase in mass swelling ratio over time. Chondrocytes deposited increasing amounts of sulfated glycosaminoglycans and collagens in the hydrogels with time. Spatially, collagen type II and aggrecan were present in the neotissue with formation of a territorial matrix beginning at day 21. Nondestructive measurements revealed an 8-fold increase in compressive modulus from days 7 to 28, which correlated with total collagen content. Ultrasound measurements revealed changes in the constructs over time, which differed from the mechanical properties, and appeared to correlate with ECM structure and organization shown by immunohistochemical analysis. Overall, non-destructive and destructive measurements show that this new hydrolytically degradable PEG hydrogel is promising for cartilage TE. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE Designing synthetic hydrogels whose degradation matches tissue growth is critical to maintaining mechanical integrity as the hydrogel degrades and new tissue forms, but is challenging due to the nature of the hydrogel crosslinks that inhibit diffusion of tissue matrix molecules. This study details a promising, new, photo-clickable and synthetic hydrogel whose degradation supports cartilaginous tissue matrix growth leading to the formation of a territorial matrix, concomitant with an increase in mechanical properties. Nondestructive assays based on mechanical and ultrasonic properties were also investigated using a novel instrument and found to correlate with matrix deposition and evolution. In sum, this study presents a new hydrogel platform combined with nondestructive assessments, which together have potential for in vitro cartilage tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander J Neumann
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Timothy Quinn
- Applied Chemicals and Materials Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO 80305, USA
| | - Stephanie J Bryant
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA; BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA; Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA.
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30
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Dey P, Schneider T, Chiappisi L, Gradzielski M, Schulze-Tanzil G, Haag R. Mimicking of Chondrocyte Microenvironment Using In Situ Forming Dendritic Polyglycerol Sulfate-Based Synthetic Polyanionic Hydrogels. Macromol Biosci 2016; 16:580-90. [DOI: 10.1002/mabi.201500377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2015] [Revised: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pradip Dey
- Institut für Chemie und Biochemie; Freie Universität Berlin; Takustr. 3 14195 Berlin Germany
| | - Tobias Schneider
- Institut für Chemie und Biochemie; Freie Universität Berlin; Takustr. 3 14195 Berlin Germany
- Klinik für Orthopädische; Unfall- und Wiederherstellungschirurgie; Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin Campus Benjamin Franklin; Garystrasse 5 14195 Berlin Germany
| | - Leonardo Chiappisi
- Stranski Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie und Theoretische Chemie; Institut für Chemie; Technische Universität Berlin; Straße des 1, Juni 124, Sekr. TC7 10623 Berlin Germany
| | - Michael Gradzielski
- Stranski Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie und Theoretische Chemie; Institut für Chemie; Technische Universität Berlin; Straße des 1, Juni 124, Sekr. TC7 10623 Berlin Germany
| | - Gundula Schulze-Tanzil
- Department of Anatomy; Paracelsus Medical University; Nuremberg General Hospital; Prof. Ernst Nathan Str. 1 90419 Nuremberg Germany
| | - Rainer Haag
- Institut für Chemie und Biochemie; Freie Universität Berlin; Takustr. 3 14195 Berlin Germany
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31
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Giannoni P, Villa F, Cordazzo C, Zardi L, Fattori P, Quarto R, Fiorini M. Rheological properties, biocompatibility and in vivo performance of new hydrogel-based bone fillers. Biomater Sci 2016; 4:1691-1703. [DOI: 10.1039/c6bm00478d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Three different heterologous substitutes for bone regeneration, manufactured with equine-derived cortical powder, cancellous chips and demineralized bone matrix granules, were compared in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Giannoni
- Stem Cell Laboratory
- Dept. of Experimental Medicine
- University of Genova
- c/o Advanced Biotechnology Centre
- 16132–Genova
| | - Federico Villa
- Stem Cell Laboratory
- Dept. of Experimental Medicine
- University of Genova
- c/o Advanced Biotechnology Centre
- 16132–Genova
| | - Cinzia Cordazzo
- Sirius-Biotech S.r.l
- c/o
- Advanced Biotechnology Centre
- 16132 Genova
- Italy
| | - Luciano Zardi
- Sirius-Biotech S.r.l
- c/o
- Advanced Biotechnology Centre
- 16132 Genova
- Italy
| | | | - Rodolfo Quarto
- Stem Cell Laboratory
- Dept. of Experimental Medicine
- University of Genova
- c/o Advanced Biotechnology Centre
- 16132–Genova
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32
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Fan C, Wang DA. A biodegradable PEG-based micro-cavitary hydrogel as scaffold for cartilage tissue engineering. Eur Polym J 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2015.02.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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33
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A mixture approach to investigate interstitial growth in engineering scaffolds. Biomech Model Mechanobiol 2015; 15:259-78. [PMID: 26047777 DOI: 10.1007/s10237-015-0684-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Controlling biological growth within a cell-laden polymeric scaffold is a critical challenge in the tissue engineering community. Indeed, construct growth must often be balanced with scaffold degradation and is often coupled to varying degrees of deformation that originate from swelling, external forces and the effects of confinement. These factors have been shown to affect growth in many ways, but to date, our understanding is mostly qualitative. While cell sensing, molecular transport and scaffold/tissue interactions are believed to be important players, it will be critical to quantify, predict and control these effects in order to eventually optimize tissue growth in the laboratory. The aim of this paper was thus to provide a theoretical framework to better understand how the scaffold-mediated mechanisms of transport, deposition (and possibly degradation) and elasticity affect the overall growth of a tissue subjected to finite deformations. We propose a formulation in which the macroscopic evolutions in tissue size, density as well as the appearance of residual stresses can be directly related to changes in internal composition by considering three fundamental principles: mechanical equilibrium, chemical equilibrium and molecular incompressibility. The resulting model allows us to pay particular attention to features that are critical to the interaction between growth and deformation: osmotic pressure and swelling, the strain mismatch between old and newly deposited material as well as the mechano-sensitive cell-mediated production. We show that all of these phenomena may indeed strongly affect the overall growth of a construct under finite deformations.
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34
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Kinneberg KRC, Nelson A, Stender ME, Aziz AH, Mozdzen LC, Harley BAC, Bryant SJ, Ferguson VL. Reinforcement of Mono- and Bi-layer Poly(Ethylene Glycol) Hydrogels with a Fibrous Collagen Scaffold. Ann Biomed Eng 2015; 43:2618-29. [PMID: 26001970 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-015-1337-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Accepted: 05/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Biomaterial-based tissue engineering strategies hold great promise for osteochondral tissue repair. Yet significant challenges remain in joining highly dissimilar materials to achieve a biomimetic, mechanically robust design for repairing interfaces between soft tissue and bone. This study sought to improve interfacial properties and function in a bi-layer hydrogel interpenetrated with a fibrous collagen scaffold. 'Soft' 10% (w/w) and 'stiff' 30% (w/w) PEGDM was formed into mono- or bi-layer hydrogels possessing a sharp diffusional interface. Hydrogels were evaluated as single-(hydrogel only) or multi-phase (hydrogel + fibrous scaffold penetrating throughout the stiff layer and extending >500 μm into the soft layer). Including a fibrous scaffold into both soft and stiff mono-layer hydrogels significantly increased tangent modulus and toughness and decreased lateral expansion under compressive loading. Finite element simulations predicted substantially reduced stress and strain gradients across the soft-stiff hydrogel interface in multi-phase, bilayer hydrogels. When combining two low moduli constituent materials, composites theory poorly predicts the observed, large modulus increases. These results suggest material structure associated with the fibrous scaffold penetrating within the PEG hydrogel as the major contributor to improved properties and function-the hydrogel bore compressive loads and the 3D fibrous scaffold was loaded in tension thus resisting lateral expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- K R C Kinneberg
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, 1111 Engineering Drive; UCB 427, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - A Nelson
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - M E Stender
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, 1111 Engineering Drive; UCB 427, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - A H Aziz
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.,BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - L C Mozdzen
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - B A C Harley
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - S J Bryant
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.,BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.,Material Science & Engineering Program, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - V L Ferguson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, 1111 Engineering Drive; UCB 427, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA. .,BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA. .,Material Science & Engineering Program, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.
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35
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Skaalure SC, Chu S, Bryant SJ. An enzyme-sensitive PEG hydrogel based on aggrecan catabolism for cartilage tissue engineering. Adv Healthc Mater 2015; 4:420-31. [PMID: 25296398 PMCID: PMC4516272 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201400277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Revised: 08/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
A new cartilage-specific degradable hydrogel based on photoclickable thiol-ene poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogels is presented. The hydrogel crosslinks are composed of the peptide, CRDTEGE-ARGSVIDRC, derived from the aggrecanase-cleavable site in aggrecan. This new hydrogel is evaluated for use in cartilage tissue engineering by encapsulating bovine chondrocytes from different cell sources (skeletally immature (juvenile) and mature (adult) donors and adult cells stimulated with proinflammatory lipopolysaccharide (LPS)) and culturing for 12 weeks. Regardless of cell source, a twofold decrease in compressive modulus is observed by 12 weeks, but without significant hydrogel swelling indicating limited bulk degradation. For juvenile cells, a connected matrix rich in aggrecan and collagen II, but minimal collagens I and X is observed. For adult cells, less matrix, but similar quality, is deposited. Aggrecanase activity is elevated, although without accelerating bulk hydrogel degradation. LPS further decreases matrix production, but does not affect aggrecanase activity. In contrast, matrix deposition in the nondegradable hydrogels consists of aggrecan and collagens I, II, and X, indicative of hypertrophic cartilage. Lastly, no inflammatory response in chondrocytes is observed by the aggrecanase-sensitive hydrogels. Overall, it is demonstrated that this new aggrecanase-sensitive hydrogel, which is degradable by chondrocytes and promotes a hyaline-like engineered cartilage, is promising for cartilage regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey C. Skaalure
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - Stanley Chu
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
| | - Stephanie J. Bryant
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309
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36
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Skaalure SC, Radhakrishnan SM, Bryant SJ. Physiological osmolarities do not enhance long-term tissue synthesis in chondrocyte-laden degradable poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels. J Biomed Mater Res A 2014; 103:2186-92. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.35329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2014] [Revised: 08/20/2014] [Accepted: 09/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stacey C. Skaalure
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering; University of Colorado; Boulder Colorado 80309
| | | | - Stephanie J. Bryant
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering; University of Colorado; Boulder Colorado 80309
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado; Boulder Colorado 80309
- Materials Science and Engineering Program; University of Colorado; Boulder Colorado 80309
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37
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Skaalure SC, Dimson SO, Pennington AM, Bryant SJ. Semi-interpenetrating networks of hyaluronic acid in degradable PEG hydrogels for cartilage tissue engineering. Acta Biomater 2014; 10:3409-20. [PMID: 24769116 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2014.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2014] [Revised: 03/26/2014] [Accepted: 04/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Hydrolytically biodegradable poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogels offer a promising platform for chondrocyte encapsulation and tuning degradation for cartilage tissue engineering, but offer no bioactive cues to encapsulated cells. This study tests the hypothesis that a semi-interpenetrating network of entrapped hyaluronic acid (HA), a bioactive molecule that binds cell surface receptors on chondrocytes, and crosslinked degradable PEG improves matrix synthesis by encapsulated chondrocytes. Degradation was achieved by incorporating oligo (lactic acid) segments into the crosslinks. The effects of HA molecular weight (MW) (2.9×10(4) and 2×10(6)Da) and concentration (0.5 and 5mgg(-1)) were investigated. Bovine chondrocytes were encapsulated in semi-interpenetrating networks and cultured for 4weeks. A steady release of HA was observed over the course of the study with 90% released by 4weeks. Incorporation of HA led to significantly higher cell numbers throughout the culture period. After 8days, HA increased collagen content per cell, increased aggrecan-positive cells, while decreasing the deposition of hypertrophic collagen X, but these effects were not sustained long term. Measuring total sulfated glycosaminoglycan (sGAG) and collagen content within the constructs and released to the culture medium after 4weeks revealed that total matrix synthesis was elevated by high concentrations of HA, indicating that HA stimulated matrix production although this matrix was not retained within the hydrogels. Matrix-degrading enzymes were elevated in the low-, but not the high-MW HA. Overall, incorporating high-MW HA into degrading hydrogels increased chondrocyte number and sGAG and collagen production, warranting further investigations to improve retention of newly synthesized matrix molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey C Skaalure
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA; BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Shash O Dimson
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Ashley M Pennington
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Stephanie J Bryant
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA; BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA; Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA.
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Olderøy MØ, Lilledahl MB, Beckwith MS, Melvik JE, Reinholt F, Sikorski P, Brinchmann JE. Biochemical and structural characterization of neocartilage formed by mesenchymal stem cells in alginate hydrogels. PLoS One 2014; 9:e91662. [PMID: 24626259 PMCID: PMC3953515 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2013] [Accepted: 02/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A popular approach to make neocartilage in vitro is to immobilize cells with chondrogenic potential in hydrogels. However, functional cartilage cannot be obtained by control of cells only, as function of cartilage is largely dictated by architecture of extracellular matrix (ECM). Therefore, characterization of the cells, coupled with structural and biochemical characterization of ECM, is essential in understanding neocartilage assembly to create functional implants in vitro. We focused on mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) immobilized in alginate hydrogels, and used immunohistochemistry (IHC) and gene expression analysis combined with advanced microscopy techniques to describe properties of cells and distribution and organization of the forming ECM. In particular, we used second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy and focused ion beam/scanning electron microscopy (FIB/SEM) to study distribution and assembly of collagen. Samples with low cell seeding density (1e7 MSC/ml) showed type II collagen molecules distributed evenly through the hydrogel. However, SHG microscopy clearly indicated only pericellular localization of assembled fibrils. Their distribution was improved in hydrogels seeded with 5e7 MSC/ml. In those samples, FIB/SEM with nm resolution was used to visualize distribution of collagen fibrils in a three dimensional network extending from the pericellular region into the ECM. In addition, distribution of enzymes involved in procollagen processing were investigated in the alginate hydrogel by IHC. It was discovered that, at high cell seeding density, procollagen processing and fibril assembly was also occurring far away from the cell surface, indicating sufficient transport of procollagen and enzymes in the intercellular space. At lower cell seeding density, the concentration of enzymes involved in procollagen processing was presumably too low. FIB/SEM and SHG microscopy combined with IHC localization of specific proteins were shown to provide meaningful insight into ECM assembly of neocartilage, which will lead to better understanding of cartilage formation and development of new tissue engineering strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magnus Ø. Olderøy
- The Norwegian Center for Stem Cell Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- * E-mail:
| | - Magnus B. Lilledahl
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | | | | | - Finn Reinholt
- Department of Pathology, University of Oslo and Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Pawel Sikorski
- Department of Physics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jan E. Brinchmann
- The Norwegian Center for Stem Cell Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
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Sridhar BV, Doyle NR, Randolph MA, Anseth KS. Covalently tethered TGF-β1 with encapsulated chondrocytes in a PEG hydrogel system enhances extracellular matrix production. J Biomed Mater Res A 2014; 102:4464-72. [PMID: 24616326 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.35115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2013] [Revised: 01/24/2014] [Accepted: 02/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Healing articular cartilage defects remains a significant clinical challenge because of its limited capacity for self-repair. While delivery of autologous chondrocytes to cartilage defects has received growing interest, combining cell-based therapies with growth factor delivery that can locally signal cells and promote their function is often advantageous. We have previously shown that PEG thiol-ene hydrogels permit covalent attachment of growth factors. However, it is not well known if embedded chondrocytes respond to tethered signals over a long period. Here, chondrocytes were encapsulated in PEG hydrogels functionalized with transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-β1) with the goal of increasing proliferation and matrix production. Tethered TGF-β1 was found to be distributed homogenously throughout the gel, and its bioactivity was confirmed with a TGF-β1 responsive reporter cell line. Relative to solubly delivered TGF-β1, chondrocytes presented with immobilized TGF-β1 showed significantly increased DNA content, and GAG and collagen production over 28 days, while maintaining markers of articular cartilage. These results indicate the potential of thiol-ene chemistry to covalently conjugate TGF-β1 to PEG to locally influence chondrocyte function over 4 weeks. Scaffolds with other or multiple tethered growth factors may prove broadly useful in the design of chondrocyte delivery vehicles for cartilage tissue engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balaji V Sridhar
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, Colorado; Biofrontiers Institute, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, Colorado
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Rennerfeldt DA, Renth AN, Talata Z, Gehrke SH, Detamore MS. Tuning mechanical performance of poly(ethylene glycol) and agarose interpenetrating network hydrogels for cartilage tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2013; 34:8241-57. [PMID: 23932504 PMCID: PMC3773240 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.07.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2013] [Accepted: 07/18/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogels are attractive for tissue engineering applications due to their incredible versatility, but they can be limited in cartilage tissue engineering applications due to inadequate mechanical performance. In an effort to address this limitation, our team previously reported the drastic improvement in the mechanical performance of interpenetrating networks (IPNs) of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEG-DA) and agarose relative to pure PEG-DA and agarose networks. The goal of the current study was specifically to determine the relative importance of PEG-DA concentration, agarose concentration, and PEG-DA molecular weight in controlling mechanical performance, swelling characteristics, and network parameters. IPNs consistently had compressive and shear moduli greater than the additive sum of either single network when compared to pure PEG-DA gels with a similar PEG-DA content. IPNs withstood a maximum stress of up to 4.0 MPa in unconfined compression, with increased PEG-DA molecular weight being the greatest contributing factor to improved failure properties. However, aside from failure properties, PEG-DA concentration was the most influential factor for the large majority of properties. Increasing the agarose and PEG-DA concentrations as well as the PEG-DA molecular weight of agarose/PEG-DA IPNs and pure PEG-DA gels improved moduli and maximum stresses by as much as an order of magnitude or greater compared to pure PEG-DA gels in our previous studies. Although the viability of encapsulated chondrocytes was not significantly affected by IPN formulation, glycosaminoglycan (GAG) content was significantly influenced, with a 12-fold increase over a three-week period in gels with a lower PEG-DA concentration. These results suggest that mechanical performance of IPNs may be tuned with partial but not complete independence from biological performance of encapsulated cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deena A Rennerfeldt
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, USA
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Peng S, Yang SR, Ko CY, Peng YS, Chu IM. Evaluation of a mPEG-polyester-based hydrogel as cell carrier for chondrocytes. J Biomed Mater Res A 2013; 101:3311-9. [PMID: 24039062 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.34632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2012] [Revised: 01/14/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Temperature-sensitive hydrogels are attractive alternatives to porous cell-seeded scaffolds and is minimally invasive through simple injection and in situ gelling. In this study, we compared the performance of two types of temperature-sensitive hydrogels on chondrocytes encapsulation for the use of tissue engineering of cartilage. The two hydrogels are composed of methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)- poly(lactic-co-valerolactone) (mPEG-PVLA), and methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactic- co-glycolide) (mPEG-PLGA). Osmolarity and pH were optimized through the manipulation of polymer concentration and dispersion medium. Chondrocytes proliferation in mPEG-PVLA hydrogels was observed as well as accumulation of GAGs and collagen. On the other hand, chondrocytes encapsulated in mPEG-PLGA hydrogels showed low viability and chondrogenesis. Also, mPEG-PVLA hydrogel, which is more hydrophobic, retained physical integrity after 14 days while mPEG-PLGA hydrogel underwent full degradation due to faster hydrolysis rate and more pronounced acidic self-catalyzed degradation. The mPEG-PVLA hydrogel can be furthered tuned by manipulation of molecular weights to obtain hydrogels with different swelling and degradation characteristics, which may be useful as producing a selection of hydrogels compatible with different cell types. Taken together, these results demonstrate that mPEG-PVLA hydrogels are promising to serve as three-dimensional cell carriers for chondrocytes and potentially applicable in cartilage tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sydney Peng
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan, ROC
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Farnsworth NL, Antunez LR, Bryant SJ. Dynamic compressive loading differentially regulates chondrocyte anabolic and catabolic activity with age. Biotechnol Bioeng 2013; 110:2046-57. [DOI: 10.1002/bit.24860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2012] [Revised: 01/25/2013] [Accepted: 02/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Dhote V, Skaalure S, Akalp U, Roberts J, Bryant SJ, Vernerey FJ. On the role of hydrogel structure and degradation in controlling the transport of cell-secreted matrix molecules for engineered cartilage. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2013; 19:61-74. [PMID: 23276516 PMCID: PMC3606675 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2012.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2012] [Revised: 10/07/2012] [Accepted: 10/09/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Damage to cartilage caused by injury or disease can lead to pain and loss of mobility, diminishing one's quality of life. Because cartilage has a limited capacity for self-repair, tissue engineering strategies, such as cells encapsulated in synthetic hydrogels, are being investigated as a means to restore the damaged cartilage. However, strategies to date are suboptimal in part because designing degradable hydrogels is complicated by structural and temporal complexities of the gel and evolving tissue along multiple length scales. To address this problem, this study proposes a multi-scale mechanical model using a triphasic formulation (solid, fluid, unbound matrix molecules) based on a single chondrocyte releasing extracellular matrix molecules within a degrading hydrogel. This model describes the key players (cells, proteoglycans, collagen) of the biological system within the hydrogel encompassing different length scales. Two mechanisms are included: temporal changes of bulk properties due to hydrogel degradation, and matrix transport. Numerical results demonstrate that the temporal change of bulk properties is a decisive factor in the diffusion of unbound matrix molecules through the hydrogel. Transport of matrix molecules in the hydrogel contributes both to the development of the pericellular matrix and the extracellular matrix and is dependent on the relative size of matrix molecules and the hydrogel mesh. The numerical results also demonstrate that osmotic pressure, which leads to changes in mesh size, is a key parameter for achieving a larger diffusivity for matrix molecules in the hydrogel. The numerical model is confirmed with experimental results of matrix synthesis by chondrocytes in biodegradable poly(ethylene glycol)-based hydrogels. This model may ultimately be used to predict key hydrogel design parameters towards achieving optimal cartilage growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentin Dhote
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, USA
| | - Stacey Skaalure
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, USA
| | - Umut Akalp
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, USA
| | - Justine Roberts
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, USA
| | - Stephanie J. Bryant
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, USA
- Biofrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, USA
| | - Franck J. Vernerey
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, USA
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O'Connell GD, Fong JV, Dunleavy N, Joffe A, Ateshian GA, Hung CT. Trimethylamine N-oxide as a media supplement for cartilage tissue engineering. J Orthop Res 2012; 30:1898-905. [PMID: 22707357 PMCID: PMC3625430 DOI: 10.1002/jor.22171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2012] [Accepted: 05/22/2012] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Supplements added to the culture media (e.g., growth factors and dexamethasone) have been successful in improving mechanical and biochemical properties of engineered cartilage towards native values. Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), a natural osmolyte found in shark cartilage, is thought to induce protein folding, and counteracts the destabilizing effect of the high concentrations of urea stored by sharks. The objective of this study was to investigate the use of TMAO as a media supplement for promoting growth of functional engineered cartilage in culture. In the first study, TMAO was added to the culture media for the first 14 days in culture and concentrations of 0-200 mM were evaluated. In the second study, TMAO was supplemented to the culture media following chondroitinase ABC digestion, which has been previously shown to mediate an increased collagen content in engineered cartilage. A dose-dependent response was observed with improved mechanical and biochemical properties for engineered constructs cultured with TMAO at concentrations of 5-100 mM. The Young's modulus of digested constructs cultured in TMAO was 2× greater than digested constructs cultured in the control medium and recovered to undigested control levels by day 42. In conclusion, these initial studies with TMAO as a media supplement show promise for improving the compressive mechanical properties, increasing extracellular matrix production, and increasing the recovery time following chABC digestion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace D. O'Connell
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, 351 Engineering Terrace, MC8904 1210 Amsterdam Avenue, New York, New York 10027
| | - Jason V. Fong
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, 351 Engineering Terrace, MC8904 1210 Amsterdam Avenue, New York, New York 10027
| | - Neil Dunleavy
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, 351 Engineering Terrace, MC8904 1210 Amsterdam Avenue, New York, New York 10027
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center, New York, NY 10027
| | - Avrum Joffe
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, 351 Engineering Terrace, MC8904 1210 Amsterdam Avenue, New York, New York 10027
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center, New York, NY 10027
| | - Gerard A. Ateshian
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, 351 Engineering Terrace, MC8904 1210 Amsterdam Avenue, New York, New York 10027
| | - Clark T. Hung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, 351 Engineering Terrace, MC8904 1210 Amsterdam Avenue, New York, New York 10027
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Dua R, Ramaswamy S. Relative survivability of human osteoblasts is enhanced by 39 °C and ascorbic acid after exposure to photopolymerization ingredients. Cytotechnology 2012; 65:587-96. [PMID: 23117200 DOI: 10.1007/s10616-012-9512-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2012] [Accepted: 10/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Photopolymerizable hydrogels offer great potential in cartilage tissue engineering due to their ability to conform to irregular defect shapes and be applied in a potentially minimally invasive manner. An important process requirement in the use of photopolymerizable hydrogels is the ability of the suspended cells to withstand low intensity ultraviolet light (UV) exposure (4-5 mW/cm(2)) and photoinitiator concentrations. For cartilage integration with underlying subchondral bone tissue, robust localized osteoblast activity is necessary. Yet, while it is known that osteoblasts do not respond well to UV light, limited work has been conducted to improve their survivability. In this study, we evaluated the cellular cytotoxicity of five different human cell sources at different UV exposure times, with and without a commercially used photoinitiator. We were able to confirm that human osteoblasts were the least tolerant to varying UV exposure times in comparison to bone marrow stem cell, periodontal ligament cell, smooth muscle and endothelial cell lineages. Moreover osteoblasts cultured at 39 °C did not deteriorate in terms of alkaline phosphatase expression or calcium deposition within the extracellular matrix (ECM), but did reduce cell proliferation. We believe however that the lower proliferation diminished osteoblast sensitivity to UV and the photoinitiator. In fact, the relative survivability of osteoblasts was found to be augmented by the combination of a biochemical factor and an elevated incubation temperature; specifically, the use of 50 mg/l of the anti-oxidant, ascorbic acid significantly (P < 0.05) increased the survivability of osteoblasts when cultured at 39 °C. We conclude that ascorbic acid at an incubation temperature of 39 °C can be included in in vitro protocols used to assess cartilage integration with bone ECM. Such inclusion will enhance conditions of the engineered tissue model system in recapitulating in vivo osteoblast activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rupak Dua
- Tissue Engineered Mechanics, Imaging and Materials Laboratory (TEMIM Lab), Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering and Computing, Florida International University, 10555 W. Flagler Street, EC 2612, Miami, FL, 33174, USA
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Liras A, Gaban AS, Rodriguez-Merchan EC. Cartilage restoration in haemophilia: advanced therapies. Haemophilia 2012; 18:672-9. [PMID: 22616708 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2516.2012.02816.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Current treatment of joint cartilage lesions is based either on conventional techniques (bone marrow stimulation, osteochondral autograft or allograft transplantation) or on newly developed techniques (chondrocyte implantation and those based on cell therapy that use bioreactors, growth factors, mesenchymal stem cells [MSCs] and genetically modified cells). The aim of this article is to review the therapeutic strategies above mentioned and to determine whether the chondral damage seen in haemophilia could benefit from any of them. The different conventional techniques have shown similar results whereas autologous chondrocyte implantation, which is in common use at the present time, has not been shown to produce any conclusive results or to lead to the formation of hyaline cartilage. MSCs hold promise for the repair of joint cartilage given their differentiation capacity and the therapeutic effect. The use of bioreactors and growth factors, which stimulate cartilage formation, may optimize such strategies in the context of reimplantation of chondrocytes, differentiated MSCs and cartilage progenitor cells. The aim of cell therapy is restoration of function through the repair of damaged tissue or the stimulation of growth factor synthesis. Implantation of autologous chondrocytes or MSCs was up to now able to address only highly localized chondral lesions. Adequate control of the differentiation process as well as the use of growth factors and appropriate bioreactors could transform cell-based therapies into a more efficient and longer term treatment even for patients with haemophilia. Nevertheless, raising false expectations in these patients should be avoided. There are a number of approaches to cartilage restoration in haemophilic arthropathy, which are currently being explored for other joint related degenerative disorders. If it can be proven to be effective for the disorders in which clinical trials are ongoing and costs could be limited, it might be an useful palliative approach to haemophilic arthropathy. However, we still have a long way to go for use in haemophilic arthropathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Liras
- Department of Physiology, Biology School, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain.
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Khanarian NT, Haney NM, Burga RA, Lu HH. A functional agarose-hydroxyapatite scaffold for osteochondral interface regeneration. Biomaterials 2012; 33:5247-58. [PMID: 22531222 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.03.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2012] [Accepted: 03/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Regeneration of the osteochondral interface is critical for integrative and functional cartilage repair. This study focuses on the design and optimization of a hydrogel-ceramic composite scaffold of agarose and hydroxyapatite (HA) for calcified cartilage formation. The first study objective was to compare the effects of HA on non-hypertrophic and hypertrophic chondrocytes cultured in the composite scaffold. Specifically, cell growth, biosynthesis, hypertrophy, and scaffold mechanical properties were evaluated. Next, the ceramic phase of the scaffold was optimized in terms of particle size (200 nm vs. 25 μm) and dose (0-6 w/v%). It was observed that while deep zone chondrocyte (DZC) biosynthesis and hypertrophy remained unaffected, hypertrophic chondrocytes measured higher matrix deposition and mineralization potential with the addition of HA. Most importantly, higher matrix content translated into significant increases in both compressive and shear mechanical properties. While cell hypertrophy was independent of ceramic size, matrix deposition was higher only with the addition of micron-sized ceramic particles. In addition, the highest matrix content, mechanical properties and mineralization potential were found in scaffolds with 3% micro-HA, which approximates both the mineral aggregate size and content of the native interface. These results demonstrate that the biomimetic hydrogel-ceramic composite is optimal for calcified cartilage formation and is a promising design strategy for osteochondral interface regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora T Khanarian
- Biomaterials and Interface Tissue Engineering Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, 1210 Amsterdam Avenue, 351 Engineering Terrace, MC 8904, NY 10027, USA
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Skaalure SC, Milligan IL, Bryant SJ. Age impacts extracellular matrix metabolism in chondrocytes encapsulated in degradable hydrogels. Biomed Mater 2012; 7:024111. [DOI: 10.1088/1748-6041/7/2/024111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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49
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Modulation of mesenchymal stem cell chondrogenesis in a tunable hyaluronic acid hydrogel microenvironment. Biomaterials 2012; 33:3835-45. [PMID: 22369963 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.01.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 205] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2011] [Accepted: 01/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
An injectable and biodegradable hydrogel system comprising hyaluronic acid-tyramine (HA-Tyr) conjugates can safely undergo covalent cross-linking in vivo by the addition of small amounts of peroxidase and hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), with the independent tuning of the gelation rate and degree of cross-linking. Such hydrogel networks with tunable mechanical and degradation properties may provide the additional level of control needed to enhance chondrogenesis and overall cartilage tissue formation in vitro and in vivo. In this study, HA-Tyr hydrogels were explored as biomimetic matrices for caprine mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in cartilage tissue engineering. The compressive modulus, equilibrium swelling and degradation rate could be controlled by varying the concentration of H(2)O(2) as the oxidant in the oxidative coupling reaction. Cellular condensation reflected by the increase in effective number density of rounded cells in lacunae was greater in softer hydrogel matrices with lower cross-linking that displayed enhanced scaffold contracture. Conversely, within higher cross-linked matrices, cells adopted a more elongated morphology, with a reduced degree of cellular condensation. Furthermore, the degree of hydrogel cross-linking also modulated matrix biosynthesis and cartilage tissue histogenesis. Lower cross-linked matrix enhanced chondrogenesis with increases in the percentage of cells with chondrocytic morphology; biosynthetic rates of glycosaminoglycan and type II collagen; and hyaline cartilage tissue formation. With increasing cross-linking degree and matrix stiffness, a shift in MSC differentiation toward fibrous phenotypes with the formation of fibrocartilage and fibrous tissues was observed. These findings suggest that the tunable three-dimensional microenvironment of the HA-Tyr hydrogels modulates cellular condensation during chondrogenesis and has a dramatic impact on spatial organization of cells, matrix biosynthesis, and overall cartilage tissue histogenesis.
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