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Wanve M, Kaur H, Sarmah D, Saraf J, Pravalika K, Vats K, Kalia K, Borah A, Yavagal DR, Dave KR, Bhattacharya P. Therapeutic spectrum of interferon-β in ischemic stroke. J Neurosci Res 2018; 97:116-127. [PMID: 30320448 PMCID: PMC7167007 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Ischemic stroke is devastating and a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. To date, only clot retrieval devices and/or intravenous tissue plasminogen activators (tPA) have been approved by the US-FDA for the treatment of acute ischemic stroke. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop an effective treatment for stroke that can have limited shortcomings and broad spectrum of applications. Interferon-beta (IFN-β), an endogenous cytokine and a key anti-inflammatory agent, contributes toward obviating deleterious stroke outcomes. Therefore, exploring the role of IFN-β may be a promising alternative approach for stroke intervention in the future. In the present review, we have discussed about IFN-β along with its different mechanistic roles in ischemic stroke. Furthermore, therapeutic approaches targeting the inflammatory cascade with IFN-β therapy that may be helpful in improving stroke outcome are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madhuri Wanve
- Department of Pharmacology and ToxicologyNational Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)GandhinagarIndia
| | - Harpreet Kaur
- Department of Pharmacology and ToxicologyNational Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)GandhinagarIndia
| | - Deepaneeta Sarmah
- Department of Pharmacology and ToxicologyNational Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)GandhinagarIndia
| | - Jackson Saraf
- Department of Pharmacology and ToxicologyNational Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)GandhinagarIndia
| | - Kanta Pravalika
- Department of Pharmacology and ToxicologyNational Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)GandhinagarIndia
| | - Kanchan Vats
- Department of Pharmacology and ToxicologyNational Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)GandhinagarIndia
| | - Kiran Kalia
- Department of Pharmacology and ToxicologyNational Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)GandhinagarIndia
| | - Anupom Borah
- Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Life Science and BioinformaticsAssam UniversitySilcharIndia
| | - Dileep R. Yavagal
- Department of Neurology and NeurosurgeryUniversity of Miami Miller School of MedicineMiamiFlorida
| | - Kunjan R. Dave
- Department of Neurology and NeurosurgeryUniversity of Miami Miller School of MedicineMiamiFlorida
| | - Pallab Bhattacharya
- Department of Pharmacology and ToxicologyNational Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER)GandhinagarIndia
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2
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Nijboer CH, Kooijman E, van Velthoven CT, van Tilborg E, Tiebosch IA, Eijkelkamp N, Dijkhuizen RM, Kesecioglu J, Heijnen CJ. Intranasal Stem Cell Treatment as a Novel Therapy for Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. Stem Cells Dev 2018; 27:313-325. [PMID: 29310519 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2017.0148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) represents a major health problem in Western society due to high mortality and morbidity, and the relative young age of patients. Currently, efficacious therapeutic options are very limited. Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) administration has been shown to improve functional outcome and lesion size in experimental models of stroke and neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury. Here, we studied the therapeutic potential of intranasally administered bone marrow-derived MSCs relatively late postinsult using a rat endovascular puncture model for SAH. Six days after induction of SAH, rats were treated with MSCs or vehicle through nasal administration. Intranasal MSC treatment significantly improved sensorimotor and mechanosensory function at 21 days after SAH. Gray and white matter loss was significantly reduced by MSC treatment and the number of NeuN+ neurons around the lesion increased due to MSC treatment. Moreover, intranasal MSC administration led to a sharp decrease in SAH-induced activation of astrocytes and microglia/macrophages in the lesioned hemisphere, especially of M2-like (CD206+) microglia/macrophages. Interestingly, MSC administration also decreased SAH-induced depression-like behavior in association with a restoration of tyrosine hydroxylase expression in the substantia nigra and striatum. We show here for the first time that intranasal MSC administration reverses the devastating consequences of SAH, including regeneration of the cerebral lesion, functional recovery, and treatment of comorbid depression-like behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cora H Nijboer
- 1 Laboratory of Neuroimmunology and Developmental Origins of Disease, Division Woman and Baby, University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Elke Kooijman
- 1 Laboratory of Neuroimmunology and Developmental Origins of Disease, Division Woman and Baby, University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht, the Netherlands .,2 Department of Intensive Care Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Cindy T van Velthoven
- 1 Laboratory of Neuroimmunology and Developmental Origins of Disease, Division Woman and Baby, University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Erik van Tilborg
- 1 Laboratory of Neuroimmunology and Developmental Origins of Disease, Division Woman and Baby, University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Ivo A Tiebosch
- 3 Biomedical MR Imaging and Spectroscopy Group, Center for Image Sciences, University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Niels Eijkelkamp
- 1 Laboratory of Neuroimmunology and Developmental Origins of Disease, Division Woman and Baby, University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Rick M Dijkhuizen
- 3 Biomedical MR Imaging and Spectroscopy Group, Center for Image Sciences, University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Jozef Kesecioglu
- 2 Department of Intensive Care Medicine, University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Cobi J Heijnen
- 4 Laboratory of Neuroimmunology, Department of Symptom Research, Division of Internal Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center , Houston, Texas
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3
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Zheng YK, Dong XQ, Du Q, Wang H, Yang DB, Zhu Q, Che ZH, Shen YF, Jiang L, Hu W, Wang KY, Yu WH. Comparison of plasma copeptin and multiple biomarkers for assessing prognosis of patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Clin Chim Acta 2017; 475:64-69. [PMID: 29037840 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2017.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Revised: 10/07/2017] [Accepted: 10/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increased plasma copeptin concentrations are related to poor prognosis after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH). The aim of this study was to assess prognostic significance of plasma copeptin detection compared with glial fibrillary astrocyte protein, myelin basic protein, S100B, phosphorylated axonal neurofilament subunit H, neuron-specific enolase, tau and ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase L1 in aSAH. METHODS We detected plasma concentrations of the aforementioned biomarkers in 105 healthy controls using ELISA. Their predictive ability for symptomatic cerebral vasospasm and 6-month poor outcome (Glasgow Outcome Scale score of 1-3) were compared. RESULTS Plasma concentrations of the preceding biomarkers were highly correlated with World Federation of Neurological Surgeons subarachnoid hemorrhage scale (WFNS) scores as well as were significantly higher in patients with symptomatic cerebral vasospasm than in those without symptomatic cerebral vasospasm and in patients with poor outcome than in those with good outcome. In terms of area under receiver operating characteristic curve, their predictive value for symptomatic cerebral vasospasm and 6-month poor outcome was in the range of WFNS scores. Plasma copeptin concentration, but not plasma concentrations of other biomarkers, statistically significantly improved the predictive performance of WFNS scores. CONCLUSIONS Copeptin in plasma might have the potential to be a useful prognostic biomarker for aSAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Ke Zheng
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, The Hangzhou First People's Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, 261 Huansha Road, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Xiao-Qiao Dong
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Hangzhou First People's Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, 261 Huansha Road, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Quan Du
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Hangzhou First People's Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, 261 Huansha Road, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Hao Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Hangzhou First People's Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, 261 Huansha Road, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Ding-Bo Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Hangzhou First People's Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, 261 Huansha Road, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Qiang Zhu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Hangzhou First People's Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, 261 Huansha Road, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Zhi-Hao Che
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Hangzhou First People's Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, 261 Huansha Road, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Yong-Feng Shen
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Hangzhou First People's Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, 261 Huansha Road, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Li Jiang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Hangzhou First People's Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, 261 Huansha Road, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Wei Hu
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, The Hangzhou First People's Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, 261 Huansha Road, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Ke-Yi Wang
- Department of Central Laboratory, The Hangzhou First People's Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, 261 Huansha Road, Hangzhou 310006, China
| | - Wen-Hua Yu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Hangzhou First People's Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, 261 Huansha Road, Hangzhou 310006, China.
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4
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Atangana E, Schneider UC, Blecharz K, Magrini S, Wagner J, Nieminen-Kelhä M, Kremenetskaia I, Heppner FL, Engelhardt B, Vajkoczy P. Intravascular Inflammation Triggers Intracerebral Activated Microglia and Contributes to Secondary Brain Injury After Experimental Subarachnoid Hemorrhage (eSAH). Transl Stroke Res 2016; 8:144-156. [DOI: 10.1007/s12975-016-0485-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Revised: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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5
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Inácio AR, Liu Y, Clausen BH, Svensson M, Kucharz K, Yang Y, Stankovich T, Khorooshi R, Lambertsen KL, Issazadeh-Navikas S, Deierborg T. Endogenous IFN-β signaling exerts anti-inflammatory actions in experimentally induced focal cerebral ischemia. J Neuroinflammation 2015; 12:211. [PMID: 26581581 PMCID: PMC4652356 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-015-0427-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Interferon (IFN)-β exerts anti-inflammatory effects, coupled to remarkable neurological improvements in multiple sclerosis, a neuroinflammatory condition of the central nervous system. Analogously, it has been hypothesized that IFN-β, by limiting inflammation, decreases neuronal death and promotes functional recovery after stroke. However, the core actions of endogenous IFN-β signaling in stroke are unclear. Methods To address this question, we used two clinically relevant models of focal cerebral ischemia, transient and permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion, and two genetically modified mouse lines, lacking either IFN-β or its receptor, the IFN-α/β receptor. Subsets of inflammatory and immune cells isolated from the brain, blood, and spleen were studied using flow cytometry. Sensorimotor deficits were assessed by a modified composite neuroscore, the rotating pole and grip strength tests, and cerebral infarct volumes were given by lack of neuronal nuclei immunoreactivity. Results Here, we report alterations in local and systemic inflammation in IFN-β knockout (IFN-βKO) mice over 8 days after induction of focal cerebral ischemia. Notably, IFN-βKO mice showed a higher number of infiltrating leukocytes in the brain 2 days after stroke. Concomitantly, in the blood of IFN-βKO mice, we found a higher percentage of total B cells but a similar percentage of mature and activated B cells, collectively indicating a higher proliferation rate. The additional differential regulation of circulating cytokines and splenic immune cell populations in wild-type and IFN-βKO mice further supports an important immunoregulatory function of IFN-β in stroke. Moreover, we observed a significant weight loss 2–3 days and a reduction in grip strength 2 days after stroke in the IFN-βKO group, while endogenous IFN-β signaling did not affect the infarct volume. Conclusions We conclude that endogenous IFN-β signaling attenuates local inflammation, regulates peripheral immune cells, and, thereby, may contribute positively to stroke outcome. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-015-0427-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana R Inácio
- Laboratory for Experimental Brain Research, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC A13, Sölvegatan 17, 22184, Lund, Sweden. .,Present Address: INMED, INSERM U901, Parc Scientifique de Luminy, 163 route de Luminy, BP13, 13273, Marseille cedex 09, France. .,Present Address: Aix-Marseille Université, UMR S901, 13009, Marseille, France.
| | - Yawei Liu
- Neuroinflammation Unit, Biotech Research and Innovation Centre (BRIC), University of Copenhagen, Ole Maaløes Vej 5, 2200, Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Bettina H Clausen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, JB Winsloewsvej 21, st + 25, 2, 5000, Odense C, Denmark
| | - Martina Svensson
- Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Lund University, BMC B11, Sölvegatan 19, 22184, Lund, Sweden
| | - Krzysztof Kucharz
- Laboratory for Experimental Brain Research, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC A13, Sölvegatan 17, 22184, Lund, Sweden.,7Present Address: Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, 2200, Denmark
| | - Yiyi Yang
- Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Lund University, BMC B11, Sölvegatan 19, 22184, Lund, Sweden
| | - Totte Stankovich
- Laboratory for Experimental Brain Research, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC A13, Sölvegatan 17, 22184, Lund, Sweden
| | - Reza Khorooshi
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, JB Winsloewsvej 21, st + 25, 2, 5000, Odense C, Denmark
| | - Kate L Lambertsen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, JB Winsloewsvej 21, st + 25, 2, 5000, Odense C, Denmark
| | - Shohreh Issazadeh-Navikas
- Neuroinflammation Unit, Biotech Research and Innovation Centre (BRIC), University of Copenhagen, Ole Maaløes Vej 5, 2200, Copenhagen N, Denmark.
| | - Tomas Deierborg
- Laboratory for Experimental Brain Research, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, BMC A13, Sölvegatan 17, 22184, Lund, Sweden.,Experimental Neuroinflammation Laboratory, Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Lund University, BMC B11, Sölvegatan 19, 22184, Lund, Sweden
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The emerging role of adiponectin in cerebrovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2015; 1852:1887-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2015.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Revised: 06/10/2015] [Accepted: 06/23/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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7
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Schneider UC, Davids AM, Brandenburg S, Müller A, Elke A, Magrini S, Atangana E, Turkowski K, Finger T, Gutenberg A, Gehlhaar C, Brück W, Heppner FL, Vajkoczy P. Microglia inflict delayed brain injury after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Acta Neuropathol 2015; 130:215-31. [PMID: 25956409 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-015-1440-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2015] [Revised: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 05/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Inflammatory changes have been postulated to contribute to secondary brain injury after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). In human specimens after SAH as well as in experimental SAH using mice, we show an intracerebral accumulation of inflammatory cells between days 4 and 28 after the bleeding. Using bone marrow chimeric mice allowing tracing of all peripherally derived immune cells, we confirm a truly CNS-intrinsic, microglial origin of these immune cells, exhibiting an inflammatory state, and rule out invasion of myeloid cells from the periphery into the brain. Furthermore, we detect secondary neuro-axonal injury throughout the time course of SAH. Since neuronal cell death and microglia accumulation follow a similar time course, we addressed whether the occurrence of activated microglia and neuro-axonal injury upon SAH are causally linked by depleting microglia in vivo. Given that the amount of neuronal cell death was significantly reduced after microglia depletion, we conclude that microglia accumulation inflicts secondary brain injury after SAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulf C Schneider
- Department of Neurosurgery, Charité, Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353, Berlin, Germany
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Long-term functional consequences and ongoing cerebral inflammation after subarachnoid hemorrhage in the rat. PLoS One 2014; 9:e90584. [PMID: 24603553 PMCID: PMC3946189 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2013] [Accepted: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) represents a considerable health problem with an incidence of 6–7 per 100.000 individuals per year in Western society. We investigated the long-term consequences of SAH on behavior, neuroinflammation and gray- and white-matter damage using an endovascular puncture model in Wistar rats. Rats were divided into a mild or severe SAH group based on their acute neurological score at 24 h post-SAH. The degree of hemorrhage determined in post-mortem brains at 48 h strongly correlated with the acute neurological score. Severe SAH induced increased TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-10, MCP-1, MIP2, CINC-1 mRNA expression and cortical neutrophil influx at 48 h post-insult. Neuroinflammation after SAH was very long-lasting and still present at day 21 as determined by Iba-1 staining (microglia/macrophages) and GFAP (astrocytes). Long-term neuroinflammation was strongly associated with the degree of severity of SAH. Cerebral damage to gray- and white-matter was visualized by immunohistochemistry for MAP2 and MBP at 21 days after SAH. Severe SAH induced significant gray- and white-matter damage. MAP2 loss at day 21 correlated significantly with the acute neurological score determined at 24 h post-SAH. Sensorimotor behavior, determined by the adhesive removal task and von Frey test, was affected after severe SAH at day 21. In conclusion, we are the first to show that SAH induces ongoing cortical inflammation. Moreover, SAH induces mainly cortical long-term brain damage, which is associated with long-term sensorimotor damage.
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Abstract
Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) causes early brain injury (EBI) that is mediated by effects of transient cerebral ischaemia during bleeding plus effects of the subarachnoid blood. Secondary effects of SAH include increased intracranial pressure, destruction of brain tissue by intracerebral haemorrhage, brain shift, and herniation, all of which contribute to pathology. Many patients survive these phenomena, but deteriorate days later from delayed cerebral ischaemia (DCI), which causes poor outcome or death in up to 30% of patients with SAH. DCI is thought to be caused by the combined effects of angiographic vasospasm, arteriolar constriction and thrombosis, cortical spreading ischaemia, and processes triggered by EBI. Treatment for DCI includes prophylactic administration of nimodipine, and current neurointensive care. Prompt recognition of DCI and immediate treatment by means of induced hypertension and balloon or pharmacological angioplasty are considered important by many physicians, although the evidence to support such approaches is limited. This Review summarizes the pathophysiology of DCI after SAH and discusses established treatments for this condition. Novel strategies--including drugs such as statins, sodium nitrite, albumin, dantrolene, cilostazol, and intracranial delivery of nimodipine or magnesium--are also discussed.
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Targeted delivery of neurogenin-2 protein in the treatment for cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Biomaterials 2013; 34:8786-97. [PMID: 23942209 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.07.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 07/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Neurogenin-2 (Ngn2), as a proneural gene that promotes the survival and differentiation of neural precursor cells, is an attractive candidate for therapy against cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. However, the delivery approach limits its clinical application. To deliver Ngn2 protein into the cerebral ischemic region and exert a therapeutic effect on injured neurons after ischemia, we here reported that the fusion protein TAT-LBD-Ngn2 was constructed by fusing a transactivator of transcription (TAT) domain and a laminin-binding domain (LBD) to Ngn2. TAT-LBD-Ngn2 promoted the outgrowth of neuronal neurite, increased the survival rate and alleviated apoptosis of hippocampal neurons exposed to oxygen glucose deprivation in vitro. Furthermore, a focal cerebral ischemia model in C57BL/6 mice showed that TAT-LBD-Ngn2 efficiently crossed the blood brain barrier, aggregated in the ischemic zone and was consistently incorporated into neurons. Moreover, TAT-LBD-Ngn2 transduced into brains attenuated neuronal degeneration and apoptosis in the ischemic zone. TAT-LBD-Ngn2 treatment resulted in a reduction of infarct volume that was associated with a parallel improvement in neurological functional outcomes after reperfusion. In conclusion, the targeted delivery of TAT-LBD-Ngn2 into the ischemic zone attenuated cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury through the inhibition of neuronal degeneration and apoptosis, suggesting that TAT-LBD-Ngn2 is a promising target candidate for the treatment of ischemic stroke.
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Tiebosch IA, van den Bergh WM, Bouts MJ, Zwartbol R, van der Toorn A, Dijkhuizen RM. Progression of Brain Lesions in Relation to Hyperperfusion from Subacute to Chronic Stages after Experimental Subarachnoid Hemorrhage: A Multiparametric MRI Study. Cerebrovasc Dis 2013; 36:167-72. [DOI: 10.1159/000352048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2013] [Accepted: 05/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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