Altered Expression of Specific Transcription Factors of Th17 (RORγt, RORα) and Treg Lymphocytes (FOXP3) by Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells from Patients with Multiple Sclerosis

Many Faces of Regulatory T Cells: Heterogeneity or Plasticity?

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are essential for maintaining the immune balance in normal and pathological conditions. In autoimmune diseases and transplantation, they restrain the loss of self-tolerance and promote engraftment, whereas in cancer, an increase in Treg numbers is mostly associated with tumor growth and poor prognosis. Numerous markers and their combinations have been used to identify Treg subsets, demonstrating the phenotypic diversity of Tregs. The complexity of Treg identification can be hampered by the unstable expression of some markers, the decrease in the expression of a specific marker over time or the emergence of a new marker. It remains unclear whether such phenotypic shifts are due to new conditions or whether the observed changes are due to initially different populations. In the first case, cellular plasticity is observed, whereas in the second, cellular heterogeneity is observed. The difference between these terms in relation to Tregs is rather blurred. Considering the promising perspectives of Tregs in regenerative cell-based therapy, the existing confusing data on Treg phenotypes require further investigation and analysis. In our review, we introduce criteria that allow us to distinguish between the heterogeneity and plasticity of Tregs normally and pathologically, taking a closer look at their diversity and drawing the line between two terms.

MicroRNAs are dysregulated in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in multiple sclerosis and correlate with T cell mediators

T cell mediators and microRNAs are involved in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS), but their interaction largely remains undetermined. We investigated by RT-qPCR the dysregulation of microRNAs in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of MS patients versus healthy controls, according to radiological disease activity or treatment. Several microRNAs correlated positively/negatively with IL21/FOXP3 mRNA expression, but not with serum neurofilament light chain levels. Cytokine expression is conceivably balanced by several regulators, whereas microRNAs possibly target upstream transcription factors rather than directly cytokine mRNAs. Functional studies are needed to investigate their interaction, notably for the predicted targeting of FOXP3 by miR-34c-5p.

MAP kinase inhibitor PD98059 regulates Th1, Th9, Th17, and natural T regulatory cells in an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis mouse model of multiple sclerosis

Experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS), provides significant insights into the mechanisms that initiate and drive autoimmunity. MS is a chronic autoimmune disease of the central nervous system, characterized by inflammatory infiltration associated with demyelination. T lymphocyte cells play a crucial role in MS, whereas natural T regulatory (nTreg) cells prevent autoimmune inflammation by suppressing lymphocyte activity. This study sought to investigate the role of PD98059, a selective MAP kinase inhibitor, in Th1, Th9, Th17, and nTreg cells using the SJL/J mouse model of EAE. Following EAE development, the mice were intraperitoneally administered PD98059 (5 mg/kg for two weeks) daily. We evaluated the effects of PD98059 on Th1 (IFN-γ and T-bet), Th9 (IL-9 and IRF4), Th17 (IL-17A and RORγT), and nTreg (FoxP3 and Helios) cells in the spleen using flow cytometry. Moreover, we explored the effects of PD98059 on the IFN-γ, T-bet, IL-9, IRF4, IL-17A, RORγT, FoxP3, and Helios mRNA and protein levels in brain tissues using qRT-PCR and Western blot analyses. PD98059 treatment significantly decreased the proportion of CD4+IFN-γ+, CD4+T-bet+, CD4+IL-9+, CD4+IRF4+, CD4+IL-17A+, CD4+RORγT+, CD4+IL-17A+, and CD4+RORγT+ cells while increasing that of CD4+FoxP3+ and CD4+Helios+ cells. In addition, PD98059 administration decreased the mRNA and protein levels of IFN-γ, T-bet, IL-9, IRF4, IL-17A, and RORγT but increased those of FoxP3 and Helios in the brain tissue of EAE mice. Our findings suggest that PD98059 corrects immune dysfunction in EAE mice, which is concurrent with the modulation of multiple signaling pathways.

Differential roles of regulatory T cells in Alzheimer's disease

Regulatory T (Treg) cells interact with a variety of resident cells and infiltrated immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS) to modulate neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Extracellular amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide deposition and secondary persistent inflammation due to activation of microglia, astrocytes, and infiltrated immune cells contribute to Alzheimer's disease (AD)-related neurodegeneration. The majority of evidence supports the neuroprotective effects of Treg cells in AD. In the early stages of AD, appropriate Treg cell activity is required for the induction of microglia and astrocyte phagocytic activity in order to clear A deposits and prevent neuroinflammation. Such neuroprotective impacts were in part attributed to the ability of Treg cells to suppress deleterious and/or boost beneficial functions of microglia/astrocytes. In the later stages of AD, an effective Treg cell activity needs to prevent neurotoxicity and neurodegeneration. Treg cells can exert preventive effects on Th1-, and Th17 cell-related pathologic responses, whilst potentiating Th2-mediated protective activity. The impaired Treg cell-related immunomodulatory mechanisms have been described in AD patients and in related animal models which can contribute to the onset and progression of AD. This review aimed to provide a comprehensive figure regarding the role of Treg cells in AD while highlighting potential therapeutic approaches.

Small molecule inhibitors of RORγt for Th17 regulation in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases

As a ligand-dependent transcription factor, retinoid-associated orphan receptor γt (RORγt) that controls T helper (Th) 17 cell differentiation and interleukin (IL)-17 expression plays a critical role in the progression of several inflammatory and autoimmune conditions. An emerging novel approach to the therapy of these diseases thus involves controlling the transcriptional capacity of RORγt to decrease Th17 cell development and IL-17 production. Several RORγt inhibitors including both antagonists and inverse agonists have been discovered to regulate the transcriptional activity of RORγt by binding to orthosteric- or allosteric-binding sites in the ligand-binding domain. Some of small-molecule inhibitors have entered clinical evaluations. Therefore, in current review, the role of RORγt in Th17 regulation and Th17-related inflammatory and autoimmune diseases was highlighted. Notably, the recently developed RORγt inhibitors were summarized, with an emphasis on their optimization from lead compounds, efficacy, toxicity, mechanisms of action, and clinical trials. The limitations of current development in this area were also discussed to facilitate future research.

Interferon-γ-Treated Mesenchymal Stem Cells Modulate the T Cell-Related Chemokines and Chemokine Receptors in an Animal Model of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

BACKGROUND

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) modulate immune responses, and their immunomodulatory potential can be enhanced using inflammatory cytokines. Here, the modulatory effects of IFN-γ-licensed MSCs on expression of T cell-related chemokines and chemokine receptors were evaluated using an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

EAE was induced in 3 groups of C57bl/6 mice and then treated with PBS, MSCs and IFN-γ-treated MSCs. The EAE manifestations were registered daily and finally, the brain and spinal cords were isolated for histopathological and gene expression studies.

RESULTS

The clinical scores were lowered in MSCs and IFN-γ-licensed MSCs groups, however, mice treated with IFN-γ-licensed MSCs exhibited lower clinical scores than MSCs-treated mice. Leukocyte infiltration into the brain was reduced after treatment with MSCs or IFN-γ-licensed MSCs compared to untreated group (P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively). In comparison with untreated EAE mice, treatment with MSCs reduced CCL20 expression (P<0.001) and decreased CXCR3 and CCR6 expression (P<0.02 and P<0.04, respectively). In comparison with untreated EAE mice, treatment with IFN-γ-licensed MSCs reduced CXCL10, CCL17 and CCL20 expression (P<0.05, P<0.05, and P<0.001, respectively) as well as decreased CXCR3 and CCR6 expression (P<0.002 and P<0.02, respectively), whilst promoting expression of CCL22 and its receptor CCR4 (P<0.0001 and P<0.02, respectively). In comparison with MSC-treated group, mice treated with IFN-γ-licensed MSCs exhibited lower CXCL10 and CCR6 expression (P<0.002 and P<0.01, respectively), whereas greater expression of CCL22 and CCR4 (P<0.0001 and P<0.01, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Priming the MSC with IFN-γ can be an efficient approach to enhance the immunomodulatory potential of MSCs.

Contribution of survivin to the immune system, allergies and autoimmune diseases

In addition to malignancies, survivin (a member of the apoptosis inhibitor family) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory disorders, including autoimmune and allergic diseases. Survivin is constantly expressed in the proliferating hematopoietic progenitor cells, and it is re-expressed in the mature cells of the innate and adaptive immunity, upon activation. Survivin enhances the expression of co-stimulatory molecules and MHC class II molecules in dendritic cells, and promotes the lifespan of macrophages, neutrophils, and eosinophils, while suppressing natural killer (NK) cell activity. Survivin has been implicated in T cell maturation, T cell expansion, effector CD4⁺ T cell differentiation, maintenance of memory CD4⁺ T and CD8⁺ T cells, as well as antibody production. Upregulated expression of survivin was indicated in the T cells as well as various samples collected from allergic patients. Survivin can contribute to the pathogenesis of allergic diseases via the promotion of the Th2 polarization, promoting IL-4 expression, compromising activation-induced cell death (AICD) in Th2 cells, and preventing apoptosis of eosinophils, as well as, amplification of eosinophilia. Moreover, survivin can interfere with clonal deletion of autoreactive T and B cells, as well as suppress Treg cell development and activity supporting the development of autoimmune diseases. This review discusses the role of survivin in immunity, allergy and autoimmunity as well as provides evidence that survivin may be considered as a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of allergic and autoimmune diseases.

Sirolimus- and cyclosporine-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers: Development, characterization, and in vitro evaluation in T-cell profiles of patients with a history of recurrent pregnancy loss

Purpose

The authors developed nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) loaded with sirolimus (SRL) and cyclosporine (CsA) to improve their therapeutic efficacy in recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL) patients.

Methods

Mono-delivery and co-delivery of SRL and CsA by NLCs (S-NLCs, C-NLCs, and S-C-NLCs) were developed. The MTT assay was used to study the optimum dose of formulations. PCR, Western blotting, and ELISA were also conducted.

Results

Well-designed nanodrugs with a suitable size, zeta potential, desirable encapsulation efficiency drug loading, and cellular uptake confirmed optimum formulations. Based on cell viability, the amounts of SRL and CsA could be reduced greatly due to the co-delivery by NLCs. Following S-NLCs and C-NLCs interventions in T cells of patients with RPL and immune abnormality, a significant difference was observed in transcription factors and cytokine levels of Th1, Th17, and Tregs compared with healthy samples. Thus, a higher level of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-17, and IL-21) and their regulators (T-bet and RORγt), as well as a lower level of an anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) and its regulatory (Foxp3), were observed. However, no significant difference was found following the S-C-NLCs intervention.

Conclusions

S-C-NLCs effectively balance the immune responses in peripheral T cells in RPL patients to induce maternal immune tolerance.

MicroRNAs as T Lymphocyte Regulators in Multiple Sclerosis

MicroRNA (miRNA) is a class of endogenous non-coding small RNA with regulatory activities, which generally regulates the expression of target genes at the post-transcriptional level. Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is thought to be an autoimmune-mediated chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) that typically affect young adults. T lymphocytes play an important role in the pathogenesis of MS, and studies have suggested that miRNAs are involved in regulating the proliferation, differentiation, and functional maintenance of T lymphocytes in MS. Dysregulated expression of miRNAs may lead to the differentiation balance and dysfunction of T lymphocytes, and they are thus involved in the occurrence and development of MS. In addition, some specific miRNAs, such as miR-155 and miR-326, may have potential diagnostic values for MS or be useful for discriminating subtypes of MS. Moreover, miRNAs may be a promising therapeutic strategy for MS by regulating T lymphocyte function. By summarizing the recent literature, we reviewed the involvement of T lymphocytes in the pathogenesis of MS, the role of miRNAs in the pathogenesis and disease progression of MS by regulating T lymphocytes, the possibility of differentially expressed miRNAs to function as biomarkers for MS diagnosis, and the therapeutic potential of miRNAs in MS by regulating T lymphocytes.

Cathepsin B inhibitor alleviates Th1, Th17, and Th22 transcription factor signaling dysregulation in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease characterized by inflammatory infiltration in association with demyelination in the central nervous system. Among the factors involved in the immunological mechanisms of MS, Th1, Th17, and Th22 cells play a critical role. In the present study, we investigated the role of CA-074, a potent Cathepsin B inhibitor, in MS progression, using the SJL/J mouse model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Following induction of EAE, mice were administered CA-074 (10 mg/kg) intraperitoneally each day, beginning on day 14 and continuing until day 28, and were evaluated for clinical signs. We further investigated the effect of CA-074 on Th1 (T-bet/STAT4), Th17 (IL-17A/RORγT), Th22 (TNF-α/IL-22), and regulatory T (Treg/Foxp3) cells in the spleen, using flow cytometry. We also analyzed the effect of CA-074 on T-bet, IL-17A, RORγT, IL-22, and mRNA and protein levels using RT-PCR and western blot analysis for brain tissues. Cathepsin B expression were also assessed by western blot in the brain tissues. The severity of clinical scores decreased significantly in CA-074-treated mice compared with that in EAE control mice. Moreover, the percentage of CD4⁺T-bet⁺, CXCR5⁺T-bet⁺, CD4⁺STAT4⁺, CD4⁺IL-17A⁺, CXCR5⁺IL-17A⁺, CD4⁺RORγT⁺, CCR6⁺RORγT⁺, CD4⁺TNF-α⁺, CD4⁺IL-22⁺, and CCR6⁺IL-22⁺ cells decreased while CD25⁺Foxp3⁺ increased in CA-074-treated EAE mice as compared to vehicle-treated EAE mice. Further, CA-074-treated EAE mice had downregulated Cathepsin B protein expression which was associated with decreased T-bet, IL-17A, RORγT, and IL-22 mRNA/protein expression. These results suggest that Cathepsin B could be a novel therapeutic candidate against for the treatment of MS.

Qing Zao Fang (QZF) Alleviates the Inflammatory Microenvironment of the Submandibular Gland in Sjögren's Syndrome Based on the PI3K/Akt/HIF-1α/VEGF Signaling Pathway

Sjögren's syndrome (SS) which could lead to a disorder of our immune system is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by invading exocrine glands such as salivary glands and lacrimal glands and other exocrine glands. Its common symptom is dry mouth and dry eyes, often accompanied by a large number of lymphocyte infiltrations and can involve other organs to cause complex clinical manifestations. In this study, we aimed at investigating the effect of QZF in SS, identifying the molecular mechanism in modulating autoimmune response, and determining the important roles of these factors' function as a modulator in the pathogenesis of SS. The NOD mice were utilized to establish the rats' model of Sjögren's syndrome. After 10 weeks' hydroxychloroquine and QZF in different dose interference, submandibular gland tissue was collected. The therapeutic effect of QZF on SS rats was identified, and the results suggest the comparable potential to hydroxychloroquine. In submandibular gland tissue, interleukin- (IL-) 17 was significantly lower in high-dose QZF than that in SS rats and the focal lymphocytes were highly attenuated. Moreover, we found that PI3K/Akt signals were activated and the downstream HIF-1α/VEGF signals were enhanced in SS rats whose protein expression could be inhibited by QZF treatment. In addition, QZF could modulate autophagy in submandibular gland tissue and then inhibit the inflammation response and therefore facilitate the tissue repair.

SPRC Suppresses Experimental Periodontitis by Modulating Th17/Treg Imbalance

Object: The aims of the study were to explore the protective effects of S-propargyl-cysteine (SPRC) on periodontitis and to determine the underlying mechanisms.

Methods: A rat periodontitis model was constructed by injecting LPS and SPRC (0, 25, and 50 mg/kg/d) was administered intraperitoneally. H2S and CSE level were detected. The alveolar bone level was evaluated by micro-CT, HE staining and methylene blue staining analysis. Inflammation-related factors, Treg and Th17 cells were detected by immunohistochemistry, RT-PCR, immunofluorescence, Western blot and flow cytometry. Phosphorylation levels of ERK1/2 and CREB were analysed.

Results: The administration of SPRC significantly increased the expression of CSE in the gingival tissue and the concentration of endogenous H2S in the peripheral blood. Simultaneously, SPRC significantly inhibited the resorption of alveolar bone based on the H&E staining, micro-CT and methylene blue staining analysis. Compared with the periodontitis group, the levels of IL-17A, IL-10 were downregulated and IL-6,TGF-β1 were upregulated in the SPRC groups. In the SPRC group, the percentage of TH17 cells and the expression of ROR-γt were downregulated, while the percentage of Tregs and the expression of Foxp3 were upregulated accompanied with inhibition of phosphorylation ERK1/2 and CREB.

Conclusion: SPRC can prevent the progression of periodontitis by regulating the Th17/Treg balance by inhibition of the ERK/CREB signalling pathway.

A Review on the Immunomodulatory Mechanism of Acupuncture in the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammatory disease with a high prevalence and canceration rate. The immune disorder is one of the recognized mechanisms. Acupuncture is widely used to treat patients with IBD. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have proven the effectiveness of acupuncture in the treatment of IBD, and some progress has been made in the mechanism. In this paper, we reviewed the studies related to acupuncture for IBD and focused on the immunomodulatory mechanism. We found that acupuncture could regulate the innate and adaptive immunity of IBD patients in many ways. Acupuncture exerts innate immunomodulatory effects by regulating intestinal epithelial barrier, toll-like receptors, NLRP3 inflammasomes, oxidative stress, and endoplasmic reticulum stress and exerts adaptive immunomodulation by regulating the balance of Th17/Treg and Th1/Th2 cells. In addition, acupuncture can also regulate intestinal flora.

Regulatory T Cells in Autoimmunity and Cancer: A Duplicitous Lifestyle

Regulatory T (Treg) cells, possess a strategic role in the maintenance of immune homeostasis, and their function has been closely linked to development of diverse pathologies including autoimmunity and cancer. Comprehensive studies in various disease contexts revealed an increased plasticity as a characteristic of Treg cells. Although Treg cell plasticity comes in various flavors, the major categories enclose the loss of Foxp3 expression, which is the master regulator of Treg cell lineage, giving rise to “ex-Treg” cells and the “fragile” Treg cells in which FOXP3 expression is retained but accompanied by the engagement of an inflammatory program and attenuation of the suppressive activity. Treg cell plasticity possess a tremendous therapeutic potential either by inducing Treg cell de-stabilization to promote anti-tumor immunity, or re-enforcing Treg cell stability to attenuate chronic inflammation. Herein, we review the literature on the Treg cell plasticity with lessons learned in autoimmunity and cancer and discuss challenges and open questions with potential therapeutic implications.

Immunological role of keratinocytes in leishmaniasis

Following inoculation of Leishmania, a protozoan parasite, into the skin of a mammal, the epidermal keratinocytes recognize the parasite and influence the local immune response that can give rise to different outcomes of leishmaniasis. The early keratinocyte-derived cytokines and keratinocytes-T cells interactions shape the anti-leishmanial immune responses that contribute to the resistance or susceptibility to leishmaniasis. The keratinocyte-derived cytokines can directly potentiate the leishmanicidal activity of monocytes and macrophages. As keratinocytes express MHC-II and enhance the expression of costimulatory molecules, these cells act as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL). Depending on the epidermal microenvironment, the keratinocytes induce various types of effector CD4⁺ T cells. Keratinocyte apoptosis and necrosis have been also implicated in ulceration in CL. Further, keratinocytes contribute to the healing of Leishmania-related cutaneous wounds. However, keratinocyte-derived IL-10 may play a key role in the development of post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL). In this review, a comprehensive discussion regarding the multiple roles played by keratinocytes during leishmaniasis was provided, while highlighting novel insights concerning the immunological and pathological roles of these cells.

Regulatory T Cell Plasticity and Stability and Autoimmune Diseases

CD4⁺CD25⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs) are a class of CD4⁺ T cells with immunosuppressive functions that play a critical role in maintaining immune homeostasis. However, in certain disease settings, Tregs demonstrate plastic differentiation, and the stability of these Tregs, which is characterized by the stable expression or protective epigenetic modifications of the transcription factor Foxp3, becomes abnormal. Plastic Tregs have some features of helper T (Th) cells, such as the secretion of Th-related cytokines and the expression of specific transcription factors in Th cells, but also still retain the expression of Foxp3, a feature of Tregs. Although such Th-like Tregs can secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines, they still possess a strong ability to inhibit specific Th cell responses. Therefore, the plastic differentiation of Tregs not only increases the complexity of the immune circumstances under pathological conditions, especially autoimmune diseases, but also shows an association with changes in the stability of Tregs. The plastic differentiation and stability change of Tregs play vital roles in the progression of diseases. This review focuses on the phenotypic characteristics, functions, and formation conditions of several plastic Tregs and also summarizes the changes of Treg stability and their effects on inhibitory function. Additionally, the effects of Treg plasticity and stability on disease prognosis for several autoimmune diseases were also investigated in order to better understand the relationship between Tregs and autoimmune diseases.

The immunomodulatory potentials of interleukin-27 in airway allergies

Allergic airway disorders such as asthma and allergic rhinitis are mainly caused by inhaled allergen-induced improper activation and responses of immune and non-immune cells. One important response is the production of IL-27 by macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) during the early stage of airway allergies. IL-27 exerts powerful modulatory influences on the cells of innate immunity [eg neutrophils, eosinophils, mast cells, monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells (DCs), innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), natural killer (NK) cells and NKT cells)] and adaptive immunity (eg Th1, Th2, Th9, Th17, regulatory T, CD8⁺ cytotoxic T and B cells). The IL-27-mediated signalling pathways may be modulated to attenuate asthma and allergic rhinitis. In this review, a comprehensive discussion concerning the roles carried out by IL-27 in asthma and allergic rhinitis was provided, while evidences are presented favouring the use of IL-27 in the treatment of airway allergies.

Single-cell transcriptomic analysis in a mouse model deciphers cell transition states in the multistep development of esophageal cancer

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is prevalent in some geographical regions of the world. ESCC development presents a multistep pathogenic process from inflammation to invasive cancer; however, what is critical in these processes and how they evolve is largely unknown, obstructing early diagnosis and effective treatment. Here, we create a mouse model mimicking human ESCC development and construct a single-cell ESCC developmental atlas. We identify a set of key transitional signatures associated with oncogenic evolution of epithelial cells and depict the landmark dynamic tumorigenic trajectories. An early downregulation of CD8⁺ response against the initial tissue damage accompanied by the transition of immune response from type 1 to type 3 results in accumulation and activation of macrophages and neutrophils, which may create a chronic inflammatory environment that promotes carcinogen-transformed epithelial cell survival and proliferation. These findings shed light on how ESCC is initiated and developed.

The impact of vitamin D3 intake on inflammatory markers in multiple sclerosis patients and their first-degree relatives

BACKGROUND & AIMS

In our previous study, a Seesaw model was proposed for the fluctuation of crucial anti- (IL-10) and pro-inflammatory (Il-6 & IL-17A) cytokines through vitamin D3. In this paper, however, it is intended to extend the mentioned model by assessing the expression mRNA levels of IL-27 and TGF-β1 as well as the changes of plasma levels of IL-27, TGF-β1, IL-17A, IL-10, and IL-6 after treatment by vitamin D3.

METHOD

Venous blood samples were drawn from Healthy Participants (HP, n = 25) and First-Degree Relative Participants (FDRP, n = 25) as control groups and Multiple Sclerosis Participants (MSP, n = 25) before and after eight weeks of supplementation with 50000 IU vitamin D3. The mRNA expression and plasma concentrations were gauged by using Real-Time PCR and ELISA assay, respectively.

RESULTS

The mRNA surfaces of IL-27, as well as TGF-β1, were up-regulated. However, the plasma levels of TGF-β1, IL-17A, and IL-6 were significantly different among the three groups. In addition, the plasma levels of IL-27, TGF-β1, IL-10, IL-17A, and IL-6 significantly changed following the administration of vitamin D3.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this paper illustrate that anti-inflammatory cytokines could have a key role in immunomodulatory functions due to their anti-inflammatory functions. To conclude, this might contribute to preventing the pathophysiological process of MS. Also, the proposed model could be used as a preventive way on disposed people to multiple sclerosis, particularly in first degree relatives of these patients.

RORγT is overexpressed in iNKT and γδ T cells during relapse in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis

The aim of the current study is to evaluate IL-17 production and RORγT, and IL-23R expression by iNKT, Th17 and γδ T cells in the peripheral blood of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis patients. Samples of peripheral blood from 21 relapse patients and 12 remission patients, and 15 healthy volunteers were stained with monoclonal antibodies for flow cytometry analysis. No significant differences in iNKT, γδ T and Th17 percentages were noted. The significant overexpression of RORγT was observed in all three subpopulations - therefore, iNKT, γδ T and Th cells may be an important source of IL-17 shortly prior to the relapse.

The proportion of peripheral regulatory T cells in patients with Multiple Sclerosis: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Accumulating evidence indicates that regulatory T cells (Tregs) play an important role in the maintenance of immune tolerance. And dysfunction or deficiency of Tregs is thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis (MS). Nevertheless, previous studies reporting Tregs in patients were controversial due to the different markers adopted to identify Tregs. To clarify the status of Tregs in the pathogenesis of MS patients, we did a meta-analysis of the results published previously to assess the proportion of Tregs in peripheral blood (PB) in patients with MS.

METHODS

We systematically searched Embase, PubMed, Cochrane, Web of Knowledge, FDA.gov, and Clinical Trials.gov for the studies reporting the proportion of Tregs in MS patients. Our main endpoints were the proportion of Tregs among CD4⁺ T cells in PB defined by different markers. We assessed pooled data by using a random-effects model. Our meta-analysis had been registered at International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) (number CRD42017064906).

RESULTS

Of 885 identified studies, a total 16 studies were selected in our analysis. There was no significant difference between MS patients and control subjects in Tregs identified by all Tregs definition methods [-0.07, (-0.46, 0.31, p = 0.706)] and Tregs defined by "CD4⁺ CD25⁺" [0.24, (-0.18, 0.65), p = 0.263]. Compared with control subjects, MS patients had a lower proportion of Tregs defined by "CD4⁺ CD25⁺ FOXP3⁺" [-0.75, (-0.46,0.31), p = 0.001].

CONCLUSION

Under random effect model of meta-analysis, the data showed that the results of Tregs in MS were different according to the definition method; and the proportion of Tregs defined by "CD4⁺ CD25⁺ FOXP3⁺" was decreased in MS. That result demonstrates that FOXP3 may be a vital definition of Tregs, and Tregs defined by stricter definition methods should be involved in the pathogenic mechanisms of MS.

Overexpression of Regulatory T Cell-Related Markers (FOXP3, CTLA-4 and GITR) by Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells from Patients with Breast Cancer

Background:

Regulatory T (Treg) cells are immunosuppressor lymphocytes that play a critical role in the establishment and progression of cancers. A number of markers, especially FOXP3, CTLA-4 and GITR influence the function of Treg cells. This investigation aimed to evaluate the expression of a number of important Treg cell-related markers by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from newly-diagnosed women with breast cancer.

Methods:

The fresh PBMCs were obtained from 20 women with breast cancer and 20 healthy individuals. The PBMCs from both groups were cultured for 32 hours in the presence or absence of PHA (10 μg/ml). After total RNA extraction from cultured PBMCs, the expression of the FOXP3, CTLA-4 and GITR transcripts was assessed using real time-PCR.

Results:

The mRNA expression of FOXP3, CTLA-4 and GITR in unstimulated PBMCs from patients with breast cancer were significantly higher than healthy control group (P<0.05, P<0.03 and P<0.04, respectively). Similarly, the expression of FOXP3, CTLA-4 and GITR transcripts in PHA-stimulated PBMCs from patients with breast cancer were significantly increased in comparison with healthy individuals (P<0.01, P<0.005 and P<0.01, respectively).

Conclusion:

The increased expression of FOXP3, CTLA-4 and GITR represent higher activity of Treg cells in patients with breast cancer that may play an important role in the tumor establishment and development.

Therapeutic potentials of ginger for treatment of Multiple sclerosis: A review with emphasis on its immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is characterized by chronic inflammatory response-induced demyelination of the neurons and degeneration of the axons within the central nervous system (CNS). A complex network of immunopathological-, inflammatory- and oxidative parameters involve in the development and advancement of MS. The anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory and anti-oxidative characteristics of the ginger and several of its components have been indicated in some of experimental and clinical investigations. The possible therapeutic potentials of ginger and its ingredients in the treatment of MS may exert mainly through the regulation of the Th1-, Th2-, Th9-, Th17-, Th22- and Treg cell-related immune responses, down-regulation of the B cell-related immune responses, modulation of the macrophages-related responses, modulation of the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, down-regulation of the arachidonic acid-derived mediators, interfering with the toll like receptor-related signaling pathways, suppression of the inflammasomes, down-regulation of the oxidative stress, reduction of the adhesion molecules expression, and down-regulation of the expression of the chemokines and chemokine receptors. This review aimed to provide a comprehensive knowledge regarding the immunomodulatory-, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties of ginger and its components, and highlight novel insights into the possible therapeutic potentials of this plant for treatment of MS. The review encourages more investigations to consider the therapeutic potentials of ginger and its effective components for managing of MS.

Different Expressions of Specific Transcription Factors of Th1 (T-bet) and Th2 cells (GATA-3) by Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells From Patients With Multiple Sclerosis

Introduction:

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disorder caused by self-reactive Th1 lymphocytes, while Th2 cells may confer protection. The Th1 and Th2 cell differentiation are regulated by specific transcription factors, especially T-bet and GATA-3, respectively. This investigation aimed to measure the T-bet and GATA-3 expression by Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMCs) obtained from MS patients after specific and non-specific in vitro stimulation.

Methods:

The PBMCs were separated from 22 patients with MS and 20 healthy individuals. They were cultured at 37°C for 24 h in the absence of a stimulator or in the presence of Myelin oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein (MOG) or Phytohemagglutinin (PHA) at a concentration of 10 μg/mL. Then the T-bet and GATA-3 expression was measured by real time-PCR.

Results:

The T-bet expression was enhanced, while the GATA-3 expression diminished. Therefore the expression of T-bet/GATA-3 ratio diminished in not-stimulated, MOG-stimulated and PHA-stimulated PBMCs from MS patients compared with equal cultures from the healthy individuals (P<0.01, P<0.01 and P<0.01, for T-bet; P<0.03, P<0.01 and P<0.02, for GATA-3; P<0.01, P<0.001 and P<0.01 for T-bet/GATA-3 ratio, respectively). The not-stimulated, MOG-stimulated, and PHA-stimulated PBMCs from men with MS expressed higher amounts of GATA-3 than equal cells from MS women (P<0.05, P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively).

Conclusion:

These results probably indicate an imbalance in Th1/Th2 cells in the level of transcription factors with a tendency toward Th1 cells in MS. The clinical utilization of the transcription factors as novel biomarkers of MS should be evaluated in further studies.

T cell subsets play an important role in the determination of the clinical outcome of Helicobacter pylori infection

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is one of the most prevalent human pathogen and a persistent infection with this bacterium causes common pathologies, such as gastritis or peptic ulcers, and also less common but more serious pathologies, such as gastric cancer or gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma. The clinical outcome of gastrointestinal infection sustained by H. pylori is determined by the reciprocal interactions between virulence factors of the bacterium and host factors, including immune response genes. Although H. pylori induces a strong immune response, the bacterium is not eliminated. The eradication failure could be attributed to the bacterial capability to regulate helper T (Th) cell-related responses. H. pylori specific CD4⁺ T cells play a fundamental role in regulating host immunity and immunopathologic events. It has been documented that Th1, Th2, Th9, Th17, Th22 and T regulatory (Treg) cells, separately or in coordination with each other, can affect the outcome of the infection sustained by of H. pylori. Some studies indicated that both Th1 and Th17 cells may be protective or pathogenic, whereas Treg and Th2 cells perform anti-inflammatory impacts during H. pylori infection. This review gathers recent information regarding the association of the CD4⁺ T cells-mediated immunological responses and the clinical consequence of H. pylori infection.

Humoral and T cell-mediated immune response against trichomoniasis

Trichomonas vaginalis (T. vaginalis) infection leads to the synthesis of specific antibodies in the serum and local secretions. The profile of T. vaginalis-specific antibodies and T cell-mediated immune responses may influence the outcome of infection, towards parasite elimination, persistence or pathological reactions. Studies have indicated that Th1-, Th17- and Th22 cell-related cytokines may be protective or pathogenic, whereas Th2- and Treg cell-related cytokines can exert anti-inflammatory effects during T. vaginalis infection. A number of T. vaginalis-related components such as lipophosphoglycan (TvLPG), α-actinin, migration inhibitory factor (TvMIF), pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFO), legumain-1 (TvLEGU-1), adhesins and cysteine proteases lead to the induction of specific antibodies. T. vaginalis has acquired several strategies to evade the humoral immune responses such as degradation of immunoglobulins by cysteine proteases, antigenic variation and killing of antibody-producing B cells. The characterization of the T. vaginalis-specific antibodies to significant immunogenic molecules and formulation of strategies to promote their induction in vaginal mucosa may reveal their potential protective effects against trichomoniasis. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of antibody and T cell-mediated immune responses to T. vaginalis and highlight novel insights into the possible role of immune responses in protection against parasite.

Imbalanced immune responses involving inflammatory molecules and immune-related pathways in the lung of acute and subchronic arsenic-exposed mice

Inorganic arsenic has been claimed to increase the risk of pulmonary diseases through ingestion, as opposed to inhalation, which makes it a unique and intriguing environmental toxicant. However, the immunotoxic effects of lung, one of the targets of arsenic exposure, have not been extensively investigated in vivo. In the present study, we first confirmed that 2.5, 5 and 10mg/kg NaAsO₂ orally for 24h dose-dependently triggered the infiltration of neutrophils, lymphocytes and macrophages in BALF. Not only the transcription activity, but also the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α were consistently raised in the lung and BALF of acute arsenic-exposed mice. Acute oral administration of NaAsO₂ also raised pulmonary MPO activity and mRNA levels of chemokine Mip-2 and Mcp-1. Meanwhile, obvious histopathological damages with inflammatory cells infiltration and erythrocyte aggregation around the capillaries were verified in the lung of mice drank arsenic-rich water freely for 3 months. Furthermore, we affirmed notable disturbance of CD4⁺ T-cell differentiation in the lung of acute arsenic-exposed mice, as demonstrated by up-regulated mRNA levels of regulator Gata3 and cytokine Il-4 of Th2, enhanced Foxp3 and Il-10 of Treg, down-regulated T-bet and Ifn-γ of Th1, as well as lessened Ror-γt and Il-23 of Th17. However, impressive elevation of cytokine Ifn-γ and Il-23, as well as moderate enhancement of Il-4 and Il-10 were found in the lung by subchronic arsenic administration. Finally, our present study demonstrated that both a single and sustained arsenic exposure prominently increased the expression of immune-related p38, JNK, ERK1/2 and NF-κB proteins in the lung tissue. While disrupting the pulmonary redox homeostasis by increasing MDA levels, exhausting GSH and impaired enzyme activities of CAT and GSH-Px, antioxidant regulator NRF2 and its downstream targets HO-1 and GSTO1/2 were also up-regulated by both acute and subchronic arsenic treatment. Conclusively, our present study demonstrated both acute and subchronic oral administration of arsenic triggers multiple pulmonary immune responses involving inflammatory molecules and T-cell differentiation, which might be closely associated with the imbalanced redox status and activation of immune-related MAPKs, NF-κB and anti-inflammatory NRF2 pathways.

Imbalances in T Cell-Related Transcription Factors Among Patients with Hashimoto's Thyroiditis

OBJECTIVES

Imbalances in effector T cell functioning have been associated with a number of autoimmune diseases, including Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT). Differentiation of effector T helper (Th) 1, Th2, Th17 and regulatory T cell (Treg) lymphocytes is regulated by transcription factors, including Th1-specific T box (T-bet), GATA binding protein-3 (GATA₃), retinoid-related orphan receptor (ROR)-α and forkhead box P3 (FOXP3). This study aimed to investigate Th1/Th2, Th1/Treg, Th2/Treg and Th17/Treg balances at the level of these transcription factors.

METHODS

This study took place between October 2015 and August 2016. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were collected from a control group of 40 healthy women recruited from the Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran, and a patient group of 40 women with HT referred to the Hazrat Ali Asghar Hospital, Zahedan. Total ribonucleic acid extraction was performed and the gene expression of transcription factors was quantitated using a real-time polymerase chain reaction technique.

RESULTS

Expression of T-bet and GATA₃ was significantly elevated, while FOXP3 expression was significantly diminished among HT patients in comparison with the controls (P = 0.03, 0.01 and 0.05, respectively). Expression of RORα was higher among HT patients, although this difference was not significant (P = 0.15). Expression of T-bet/FOXP3, GATA₃/FOXP3 and RORα/FOXP3 ratios were increased among HT patients in comparison with the controls (P <0.02, <0.01 and <0.01, respectively).

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that HT patients have imbalances in Th1/Treg, Th2/Treg and Th17/Treg lymphocytes at the level of the transcription factors, deviating towards Th1, Th2 and Th17 cells. Correction of these imbalances may therefore be therapeutic.