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Cunningham RL, Kramer ET, DeGeorgia SK, Godoy PM, Zarov AP, Seneviratne S, Grigura V, Kaufman CK. Functional in vivo characterization of sox10 enhancers in neural crest and melanoma development. Commun Biol 2021; 4:695. [PMID: 34099848 PMCID: PMC8184803 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02211-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of a neural crest developmental transcriptional program, which critically involves Sox10 upregulation, is a key conserved aspect of melanoma initiation in both humans and zebrafish, yet transcriptional regulation of sox10 expression is incompletely understood. Here we used ATAC-Seq analysis of multiple zebrafish melanoma tumors to identify recurrently open chromatin domains as putative melanoma-specific sox10 enhancers. Screening in vivo with EGFP reporter constructs revealed 9 of 11 putative sox10 enhancers with embryonic activity in zebrafish. Focusing on the most active enhancer region in melanoma, we identified a region 23 kilobases upstream of sox10, termed peak5, that drives EGFP reporter expression in a subset of neural crest cells, Kolmer-Agduhr neurons, and early melanoma patches and tumors with high specificity. A ~200 base pair region, conserved in Cyprinidae, within peak5 is required for transgenic reporter activity in neural crest and melanoma. This region contains dimeric SoxE/Sox10 dimeric binding sites essential for peak5 neural crest and melanoma activity. We show that deletion of the endogenous peak5 conserved genomic locus decreases embryonic sox10 expression and disrupts adult stripe patterning in our melanoma model background. Our work demonstrates the power of linking developmental and cancer models to better understand neural crest identity in melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L Cunningham
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine and Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Eva T Kramer
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine and Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Sophia K DeGeorgia
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine and Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Paula M Godoy
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine and Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Anna P Zarov
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine and Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Shayana Seneviratne
- School of Arts and Sciences, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Vadim Grigura
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine and Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Charles K Kaufman
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine and Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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2
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Gómez-Abenza E, Ibáñez-Molero S, García-Moreno D, Fuentes I, Zon LI, Mione MC, Cayuela ML, Gabellini C, Mulero V. Zebrafish modeling reveals that SPINT1 regulates the aggressiveness of skin cutaneous melanoma and its crosstalk with tumor immune microenvironment. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2019; 38:405. [PMID: 31519199 PMCID: PMC6743187 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-019-1389-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) is the most lethal form of skin cancer and while incidence rates are declining for most cancers, they have been steadily rising for SKCM. Serine protease inhibitor, kunitz-type, 1 (SPINT1) is a type II transmembrane serine protease inhibitor that has been shown to be involved in the development of several types of cancer, such as squamous cell carcinoma and colorectal cancer. METHODS We used the unique advantages of the zebrafish to model the impact of Spint1a deficiency in early transformation, progression and metastatic invasion of SKCM together with in silico analysis of the occurrence and relevance of SPINT1 genetic alterations of the SKCM TCGA cohort. RESULTS We report here a high prevalence of SPINT1 genetic alterations in SKCM patients and their association with altered tumor immune microenvironment and poor patient survival. The zebrafish model reveals that Spint1a deficiency facilitates oncogenic transformation, regulates the tumor immune microenvironment crosstalk, accelerates the onset of SKCM and promotes metastatic invasion. Notably, Spint1a deficiency is required at both cell autonomous and non-autonomous levels to enhance invasiveness of SKCM. CONCLUSIONS These results reveal a novel therapeutic target for SKCM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Gómez-Abenza
- Departamento de Biología Celular e Histología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
- Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria (IMIB)-Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain
| | - Sofía Ibáñez-Molero
- Departamento de Biología Celular e Histología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
- Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria (IMIB)-Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain
| | - Diana García-Moreno
- Departamento de Biología Celular e Histología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
- Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria (IMIB)-Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain
| | - Inmaculada Fuentes
- Departamento de Biología Celular e Histología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
- Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria (IMIB)-Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain
| | - Leonard I. Zon
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Cambridge, MA USA
- Stem Cell Program and Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children’s Hospital and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA USA
| | - Maria C. Mione
- Laboratory of Experimental Cancer Biology, Cibio, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - María L. Cayuela
- Hospital Clínico Universitario Virgen de la Arrixaca, IMIB-Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain
| | - Chiara Gabellini
- Departamento de Biología Celular e Histología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
- Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria (IMIB)-Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain
- Present Address: Unit of Cell and Developmental Biology, Department of Biology, University of Pisa, S.S. 12 Abetone e Brennero 4, Pisa, Italy
| | - Victoriano Mulero
- Departamento de Biología Celular e Histología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
- Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria (IMIB)-Arrixaca, Murcia, Spain
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3
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Tudrej KB, Czepielewska E, Kozłowska-Wojciechowska M. SOX10-MITF pathway activity in melanoma cells. Arch Med Sci 2017; 13:1493-1503. [PMID: 29181082 PMCID: PMC5701683 DOI: 10.5114/aoms.2016.60655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Melanoma is one of the most dangerous and lethal skin cancers, with a considerable metastatic potential and drug resistance. It involves a malignant transformation of melanocytes. The exact course of events in which melanocytes become melanoma cells remains unclear. Nevertheless, this process is said to be dependent on the occurrence of cells with the phenotype of progenitor cells - cells characterized by expression of proteins such as nestin, CD-133 or CD-271. The development of these cells and their survival were found to be potentially dependent on the neural crest stem cell transcription factor SOX10. This is just one of the possible roles of SOX10, which contributes to melanomagenesis by regulating the SOX10-MITF pathway, but also to melanoma cell survival, proliferation and metastasis formation. The aim of this review is to describe the broad influence of the SOX10-MITF pathway on melanoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karol B Tudrej
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Care, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Edyta Czepielewska
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Care, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
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4
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Jiang Z, Zhang J, Li Z, Liu Y, Wang D, Han G. A meta-analysis of prognostic value of KIT mutation status in gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Onco Targets Ther 2016; 9:3387-98. [PMID: 27350754 PMCID: PMC4902249 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s101858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous types of KIT mutations have been reported in gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs); however, controversy still exists regarding their clinicopathological significance. In this study, we reviewed the publicly available literature to assess the data by a meta-analysis to characterize KIT mutations and different types of KIT mutations in prognostic prediction in patients with GISTs. Twenty-eight studies that included 4,449 patients were identified and analyzed. We found that KIT mutation status was closely correlated with size of tumors and different mitosis indexes, but not with tumor location. KIT mutation was also observed to be significantly correlated with tumor recurrence, metastasis, as well as the overall survival of patients. Interestingly, there was higher risk of progression in KIT exon 9-mutated patients than in exon 11-mutated patients. Five-year relapse-free survival (RFS) rate was significantly higher in KIT exon 11-deleted patients than in those with other types of KIT exon 11 mutations. In addition, RFS for 5 years was significantly worse in patients bearing KIT codon 557–558 deletions than in those bearing other KIT exon 11 deletions. Our results strongly support the hypothesis that KIT mutation status is another evaluable factor for prognosis prediction in GISTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqiang Jiang
- Department of General Surgery, Affiliated Tumor Hospital, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Jian Zhang
- Department of General Surgery, Affiliated Tumor Hospital, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhi Li
- Department of General Surgery, Affiliated Tumor Hospital, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yingjun Liu
- Department of General Surgery, Affiliated Tumor Hospital, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Daohai Wang
- Department of General Surgery, Affiliated Tumor Hospital, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Guangsen Han
- Department of General Surgery, Affiliated Tumor Hospital, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, People's Republic of China
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5
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Blokzijl A, Chen LE, Gustafsdottir SM, Vuu J, Ullenhag G, Kämpe O, Landegren U, Kamali-Moghaddam M, Hedstrand H. Elevated Levels of SOX10 in Serum from Vitiligo and Melanoma Patients, Analyzed by Proximity Ligation Assay. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0154214. [PMID: 27110718 PMCID: PMC4844164 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0154214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The diagnosis of malignant melanoma currently relies on clinical inspection of the skin surface and on the histopathological status of the excised tumor. The serum marker S100B is used for prognostic estimates at later stages of the disease, but analyses are marred by false positives and inadequate sensitivity in predicting relapsing disorder. Objectives To investigate SOX10 as a potential biomarker for melanoma and vitiligo. Methods In this study we have applied proximity ligation assay (PLA) to detect the transcription factor SOX10 as a possible serum marker for melanoma. We studied a cohort of 110 melanoma patients. We further investigated a second cohort of 85 patients with vitiligo, which is a disease that also affects melanocytes. Results The specificity of the SOX10 assay in serum was high, with only 1% of healthy blood donors being positive. In contrast, elevated serum SOX10 was found with high frequency among vitiligo and melanoma patients. In patients with metastases, lack of SOX10 detection was associated with treatment benefit. In two responding patients, a change from SOX10 positivity to undetectable levels was seen before the response was evident clinically. Conclusions We show for the first time that SOX10 represents a promising new serum melanoma marker for detection of early stage disease, complementing the established S100B marker. Our findings imply that SOX10 can be used to monitor responses to treatment and to assess if the treatment is of benefit at stages earlier than what is possible radiologically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andries Blokzijl
- Dept. of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Box 815, SE-751 08 Uppsala, Sweden
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Box 595, SE-751 24, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lei E. Chen
- Dept. of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Box 815, SE-751 08 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Sigrun M. Gustafsdottir
- Dept. of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Box 815, SE-751 08 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jimmy Vuu
- Dept. of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, SE-751 08 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Gustav Ullenhag
- Dept. of Radiology, Oncology and Radiation Science, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Olle Kämpe
- Dept. of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, SE-751 08 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ulf Landegren
- Dept. of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Box 815, SE-751 08 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Masood Kamali-Moghaddam
- Dept. of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Box 815, SE-751 08 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Håkan Hedstrand
- Dept. of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, SE-751 08 Uppsala, Sweden
- * E-mail:
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Kaufman CK, Mosimann C, Fan ZP, Yang S, Thomas AJ, Ablain J, Tan JL, Fogley RD, van Rooijen E, Hagedorn EJ, Ciarlo C, White RM, Matos DA, Puller AC, Santoriello C, Liao EC, Young RA, Zon LI. A zebrafish melanoma model reveals emergence of neural crest identity during melanoma initiation. Science 2016; 351:aad2197. [PMID: 26823433 PMCID: PMC4868069 DOI: 10.1126/science.aad2197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 277] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The "cancerized field" concept posits that cancer-prone cells in a given tissue share an oncogenic mutation, but only discreet clones within the field initiate tumors. Most benign nevi carry oncogenic BRAF(V600E) mutations but rarely become melanoma. The zebrafish crestin gene is expressed embryonically in neural crest progenitors (NCPs) and specifically reexpressed in melanoma. Live imaging of transgenic zebrafish crestin reporters shows that within a cancerized field (BRAF(V600E)-mutant; p53-deficient), a single melanocyte reactivates the NCP state, revealing a fate change at melanoma initiation in this model. NCP transcription factors, including sox10, regulate crestin expression. Forced sox10 overexpression in melanocytes accelerated melanoma formation, which is consistent with activation of NCP genes and super-enhancers leading to melanoma. Our work highlights NCP state reemergence as a key event in melanoma initiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles K Kaufman
- Stem Cell Program and Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA. Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Christian Mosimann
- Institute of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Zi Peng Fan
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, 9 Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA. Computational and Systems Biology Program, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Song Yang
- Stem Cell Program and Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Andrew J Thomas
- Stem Cell Program and Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Julien Ablain
- Stem Cell Program and Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Justin L Tan
- Stem Cell Program and Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Rachel D Fogley
- Stem Cell Program and Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Ellen van Rooijen
- Stem Cell Program and Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Elliott J Hagedorn
- Stem Cell Program and Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Christie Ciarlo
- Stem Cell Program and Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Richard M White
- Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10075, USA
| | - Dominick A Matos
- Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA
| | - Ann-Christin Puller
- Research Institute Children's Cancer Center Hamburg and Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Cristina Santoriello
- Stem Cell Program and Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Eric C Liao
- Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Center for Regenerative Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Richard A Young
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, 9 Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA. Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Leonard I Zon
- Stem Cell Program and Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital Boston, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA. Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA. Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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7
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Heilmann S, Ratnakumar K, Langdon E, Kansler E, Kim I, Campbell NR, Perry E, McMahon A, Kaufman C, van Rooijen E, Lee W, Iacobuzio-Donahue C, Hynes R, Zon L, Xavier J, White R. A Quantitative System for Studying Metastasis Using Transparent Zebrafish. Cancer Res 2015; 75:4272-4282. [PMID: 26282170 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-14-3319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Metastasis is the defining feature of advanced malignancy, yet remains challenging to study in laboratory environments. Here, we describe a high-throughput zebrafish system for comprehensive, in vivo assessment of metastatic biology. First, we generated several stable cell lines from melanomas of transgenic mitfa-BRAF(V600E);p53(-/-) fish. We then transplanted the melanoma cells into the transparent casper strain to enable highly quantitative measurement of the metastatic process at single-cell resolution. Using computational image analysis of the resulting metastases, we generated a metastasis score, μ, that can be applied to quantitative comparison of metastatic capacity between experimental conditions. Furthermore, image analysis also provided estimates of the frequency of metastasis-initiating cells (∼1/120,000 cells). Finally, we determined that the degree of pigmentation is a key feature defining cells with metastatic capability. The small size and rapid generation of progeny combined with superior imaging tools make zebrafish ideal for unbiased high-throughput investigations of cell-intrinsic or microenvironmental modifiers of metastasis. The approaches described here are readily applicable to other tumor types and thus serve to complement studies also employing murine and human cell culture systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silja Heilmann
- Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Computational Biology
| | - Kajan Ratnakumar
- Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Cancer Biology & Genetics
| | - Erin Langdon
- Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Cancer Biology & Genetics
| | - Emily Kansler
- Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Cancer Biology & Genetics
| | - Isabella Kim
- Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Cancer Biology & Genetics
| | | | - Elizabeth Perry
- Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Cancer Biology & Genetics
| | - Amy McMahon
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, David Koch Institute for Integrated Cancer Biology.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute
| | - Charles Kaufman
- Children's Hospital Boston.,Harvard Medical School.,Dana Farber Cancer Institute.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute
| | - Ellen van Rooijen
- Children's Hospital Boston.,Harvard Medical School.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute
| | - William Lee
- Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Computational Biology
| | | | - Richard Hynes
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, David Koch Institute for Integrated Cancer Biology.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute
| | - Leonard Zon
- Children's Hospital Boston.,Harvard Medical School.,Dana Farber Cancer Institute.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute
| | - Joao Xavier
- Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Computational Biology
| | - Richard White
- Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Cancer Biology & Genetics.,Weill Cornell Medical College
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