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Reinehr S, Wulf J, Theile J, Schulte KK, Peters M, Fuchshofer R, Dick HB, Joachim SC. In a novel autoimmune and high-pressure glaucoma model a complex immune response is induced. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1296178. [PMID: 38515755 PMCID: PMC10955086 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1296178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Background The neurodegenerative processes leading to glaucoma are complex. In addition to elevated intraocular pressure (IOP), an involvement of immunological mechanisms is most likely. In the new multifactorial glaucoma model, a combination of high IOP and optic nerve antigen (ONA) immunization leads to an enhanced loss of retinal ganglion cells accompanied by a higher number of microglia/macrophages in the inner retina. Here, we aimed to evaluate the immune response in this new model, especially the complement activation and the number of T-cells, for the first time. Further, the microglia/macrophage response was examined in more detail. Methods Six-week-old wildtype (WT+ONA) and βB1-connective tissue growth factor high-pressure mice (CTGF+ONA) were immunized with 1 mg ONA. A wildtype control (WT) and a CTGF group (CTGF) received NaCl instead. Six weeks after immunization, retinae from all four groups were processed for immunohistology, RT-qPCR, and flow cytometry, while serum was used for microarray analyses. Results We noticed elevated numbers of C1q+ cells (classical complement pathway) in CTGF and CTGF+ONA retinae as well as an upregulation of C1qa, C1qb, and C1qc mRNA levels in these groups. While the complement C3 was only increased in CTGF and CTGF+ONA retinae, enhanced numbers of the terminal membrane attack complex were noted in all three glaucoma groups. Flow cytometry and RT-qPCR analyses revealed an enhancement of different microglia/macrophages markers, including CD11b, especially in CTGF and CTGF+ONA retinae. Interestingly, increased retinal mRNA as well as serum levels of the tumor necrosis factor α were found throughout the different glaucoma groups. Lastly, more T-cells could be observed in the ganglion cell layer of the new CTGF+ONA model. Conclusion These results emphasize an involvement of the complement system, microglia/macrophages, and T-cells in glaucomatous disease. Moreover, in the new multifactorial glaucoma model, increased IOP in combination with autoimmune processes seem to enforce an additional T-cell response, leading to a more persistent pathology. Hence, this new model mimics the pathomechanisms occurring in human glaucoma more accurately and could therefore be a helpful tool to find new therapeutic approaches for patients in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Reinehr
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Julien Wulf
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Janine Theile
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Kim K. Schulte
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Marcus Peters
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Rudolf Fuchshofer
- Institute of Human Anatomy and Embryology, University Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - H. Burkhard Dick
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Stephanie C. Joachim
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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Spurlock M, An W, Reshetnikova G, Wen R, Wang H, Braha M, Solis G, Kurtenbach S, Galindez OJ, de Rivero Vaccari JP, Chou TH, Porciatti V, Shestopalov VI. The Inflammasome-Dependent Dysfunction and Death of Retinal Ganglion Cells after Repetitive Intraocular Pressure Spikes. Cells 2023; 12:2626. [PMID: 37998361 PMCID: PMC10670000 DOI: 10.3390/cells12222626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The dysfunction and selective loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) is a known cause of vision loss in glaucoma and other neuropathies, where ocular hypertension (OHT) is the major risk factor. We investigated the impact of transient non-ischemic OHT spikes (spOHT) on RGC function and viability in vivo to identify cellular pathways linking low-grade repetitive mechanical stress to RGC pathology. We found that repetitive spOHT had an unexpectedly high impact on intraocular homeostasis and RGC viability, while exposure to steady OHT (stOHT) of a similar intensity and duration failed to induce pathology. The repetitive spOHT induced the rapid activation of the inflammasome, marked by the upregulation of NLRP1, NLRP3, AIM2, caspases -1, -3/7, -8, and Gasdermin D (GSDMD), and the release of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and other cytokines into the vitreous. Similar effects were also detected after 5 weeks of exposure to chronic OHT in an induced glaucoma model. The onset of these immune responses in both spOHT and glaucoma models preceded a 50% deficit in pattern electroretinogram (PERG) amplitude and a significant loss of RGCs 7 days post-injury. The inactivation of inflammasome complexes in Nlrp1-/-, Casp1-/-, and GsdmD-/- knockout animals significantly suppressed the spOHT-induced inflammatory response and protected RGCs. Our results demonstrate that mechanical stress produced by acute repetitive spOHT or chronic OHT is mechanistically linked to inflammasome activation, which leads to RGC dysfunction and death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Spurlock
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (M.S.); (W.A.); (G.R.); (R.W.); (H.W.); (M.B.); (G.S.); (S.K.); (V.P.)
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA;
| | - Weijun An
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (M.S.); (W.A.); (G.R.); (R.W.); (H.W.); (M.B.); (G.S.); (S.K.); (V.P.)
| | - Galina Reshetnikova
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (M.S.); (W.A.); (G.R.); (R.W.); (H.W.); (M.B.); (G.S.); (S.K.); (V.P.)
| | - Rong Wen
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (M.S.); (W.A.); (G.R.); (R.W.); (H.W.); (M.B.); (G.S.); (S.K.); (V.P.)
| | - Hua Wang
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (M.S.); (W.A.); (G.R.); (R.W.); (H.W.); (M.B.); (G.S.); (S.K.); (V.P.)
| | - Michelle Braha
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (M.S.); (W.A.); (G.R.); (R.W.); (H.W.); (M.B.); (G.S.); (S.K.); (V.P.)
| | - Gabriela Solis
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (M.S.); (W.A.); (G.R.); (R.W.); (H.W.); (M.B.); (G.S.); (S.K.); (V.P.)
| | - Stefan Kurtenbach
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (M.S.); (W.A.); (G.R.); (R.W.); (H.W.); (M.B.); (G.S.); (S.K.); (V.P.)
| | - Orlando J. Galindez
- Department of Neurological Surgery and The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA;
| | - Juan Pablo de Rivero Vaccari
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA;
- Department of Neurological Surgery and The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA;
| | - Tsung-Han Chou
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (M.S.); (W.A.); (G.R.); (R.W.); (H.W.); (M.B.); (G.S.); (S.K.); (V.P.)
| | - Vittorio Porciatti
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (M.S.); (W.A.); (G.R.); (R.W.); (H.W.); (M.B.); (G.S.); (S.K.); (V.P.)
| | - Valery I. Shestopalov
- Bascom Palmer Eye Institute Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA; (M.S.); (W.A.); (G.R.); (R.W.); (H.W.); (M.B.); (G.S.); (S.K.); (V.P.)
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
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Huang Y, Lu J, Zhao L, Fu X, Peng S, Zhang W, Wang R, Yuan W, Luo R, Wang X, Li Z, Zhang Z. Retinal cell-targeted liposomal ginsenoside Rg3 attenuates retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury via alleviating oxidative stress and promoting microglia/macrophage M2 polarization. Free Radic Biol Med 2023; 206:162-179. [PMID: 37380044 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2023.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 06/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
Retinal ischemia-reperfusion (RIR) injury remains a major challenge that is detrimental to retinal cell survival in a variety of ocular diseases. However, current clinical treatments focus on a single pathological mechanism, making them unable to provide comprehensive retinal protection. A variety of natural products including ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) exhibit potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Unfortunately, the hydrophobicity of Rg3 and the presence of various intraocular barriers limit its effective application in clinical settings. Hyaluronic acid (HA)- specifically binds to cell surface receptors, CD44, which is widely expressed in retinal pigment epithelial cells and M1-type macrophage. Here, we developed HA-decorated liposomes loaded with Rg3, termed Rg3@HA-Lips, to protect against retinal damage caused by RIR injury. Treatment with Rg3@HA-Lips significantly inhibited the oxidative stress induced by RIR injury. In addition, Rg3@HA-Lips promoted the transition of M1-type macrophage to the M2 type, ultimately reversing the pro-inflammatory microenvironment. The mechanism of Rg3@HA-Lips was further investigated and found that they can regulateSIRT/FOXO3a, NF-κB and STAT3 signaling pathways. Together with as well demonstrated good safety profiles, this CD44-targeted platform loaded with a natural product alleviates RIR injury by modulating the retinal microenvironment and present a potential clinical treatment strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanmei Huang
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Lu
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Laien Zhao
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoxuan Fu
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Shengjun Peng
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Wen Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Rong Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenze Yuan
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Rongrui Luo
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaojie Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Zelin Li
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhuhong Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology and Drug Evaluation (Yantai University), Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai, 264005, People's Republic of China.
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Ishikawa M, Izumi Y, Sato K, Sato T, Zorumski CF, Kunikata H, Nakazawa T. Glaucoma and microglia-induced neuroinflammation. FRONTIERS IN OPHTHALMOLOGY 2023; 3:1132011. [PMID: 38983051 PMCID: PMC11182182 DOI: 10.3389/fopht.2023.1132011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
Glaucoma is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disease characterized by a progressive optic neuropathy resulting in visual field defects. Elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) is the greatest risk factor for the development of glaucoma, and IOP reduction therapy is the only treatment currently available. However, there are many cases in which retinal degeneration progresses despite sufficient control of IOP. Therefore, it is important to elucidate the pathophysiology of glaucoma that is resistant to current IOP lowering therapies. Experiments using animal glaucoma models show the relationships between microglial neuroinflammatory responses and damage of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). Inhibition of neuroinflammatory pathways associated with microglial activation appears to be neuroprotective, indicating that microglia may be an important therapeutic target for RGC protection. In this review, we will focus on microglia-induced neuroinflammation in the pathogenesis of glaucoma to offer new insights into the possibility of developing novel neuroprotective therapies targeting microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Ishikawa
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
- Department of Ophthalmic Imaging and Information Analytics, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yukitoshi Izumi
- Taylor Family Institute for Innovative Psychiatric Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
- Center for Brain Research in Mood Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Kota Sato
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
- Department of Advanced Ophthalmic Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Taimu Sato
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Charles F. Zorumski
- Taylor Family Institute for Innovative Psychiatric Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
- Center for Brain Research in Mood Disorders, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Hiroshi Kunikata
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
- Department of Retinal Disease Control, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Toru Nakazawa
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
- Department of Ophthalmic Imaging and Information Analytics, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
- Department of Advanced Ophthalmic Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
- Department of Retinal Disease Control, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
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Astrocyte Immune Functions and Glaucoma. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032747. [PMID: 36769067 PMCID: PMC9916878 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes, a non-neuronal glial cell type in the nervous system, are essential for regulating physiological functions of the central nervous system. In various injuries and diseases of the central nervous system, astrocytes often change their phenotypes into neurotoxic ones that participate in pro-inflammatory responses (hereafter referred to as "immune functions"). Such astrocytic immune functions are not only limited to brain diseases but are also found in ocular neurodegenerative diseases such as glaucoma, a retinal neurodegenerative disease that is the leading cause of blindness worldwide. The eye has two astrocyte-lineage cells: astrocytes and Müller cells. They maintain the physiological environment of the retina and optic nerve, thereby controlling visual function. Dysfunction of astrocyte-lineage cells may be involved in the onset and progression of glaucoma. These cells become reactive in glaucoma patients, and animal studies have suggested that their immune responses may be linked to glaucoma-related events: tissue remodeling, neuronal death, and infiltration of peripheral immune cells. In this review, we discuss the role of the immune functions of astrocyte-lineage cells in the pathogenesis of glaucoma.
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Tsai T, Joachim SC. Glaucoma-like damage induced by S100B injection is accompanied by microglial response. Neural Regen Res 2022; 17:572-574. [PMID: 34380895 PMCID: PMC8504374 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.320980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Tsai
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Stephanie C Joachim
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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Zhao X, Sun R, Luo X, Wang F, Sun X. The Interaction Between Microglia and Macroglia in Glaucoma. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:610788. [PMID: 34121982 PMCID: PMC8193936 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.610788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Glaucoma, a neurodegenerative disease that leads to irreversible vision loss, is characterized by progressive loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and optic axons. To date, elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) has been recognized as the main phenotypic factor associated with glaucoma. However, some patients with normal IOP also have glaucomatous visual impairment and RGC loss. Unfortunately, the underlying mechanisms behind such cases remain unclear. Recent studies have suggested that retinal glia play significant roles in the initiation and progression of glaucoma. Multiple types of glial cells are activated in glaucoma. Microglia, for example, act as critical mediators that orchestrate the progression of neuroinflammation through pro-inflammatory cytokines. In contrast, macroglia (astrocytes and Müller cells) participate in retinal inflammatory responses as modulators and contribute to neuroprotection through the secretion of neurotrophic factors. Notably, research results have indicated that intricate interactions between microglia and macroglia might provide potential therapeutic targets for the prevention and treatment of glaucoma. In this review, we examine the specific roles of microglia and macroglia in open-angle glaucoma, including glaucoma in animal models, and analyze the interaction between these two cell types. In addition, we discuss potential treatment options based on the relationship between glial cells and neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohuan Zhao
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Rou Sun
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xueting Luo
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Feng Wang
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Shanghai General Hospital, The Center for Microbiota and Immunological Diseases, Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaodong Sun
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai, China
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Michetti F, Di Sante G, Clementi ME, Sampaolese B, Casalbore P, Volonté C, Romano Spica V, Parnigotto PP, Di Liddo R, Amadio S, Ria F. Growing role of S100B protein as a putative therapeutic target for neurological- and nonneurological-disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 127:446-458. [PMID: 33971224 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.04.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
S100B is a calcium-binding protein mainly expressed by astrocytes, but also localized in other definite neural and extra-neural cell types. While its presence in biological fluids is widely recognized as a reliable biomarker of active injury, growing evidence now indicates that high levels of S100B are suggestive of pathogenic processes in different neural, but also extra-neural, disorders. Indeed, modulation of S100B levels correlates with the occurrence of clinical and/or toxic parameters in experimental models of diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, multiple sclerosis, acute neural injury, inflammatory bowel disease, uveal and retinal disorders, obesity, diabetes and cancer, thus directly linking the levels of S100B to pathogenic mechanisms. In general, deletion/inactivation of the protein causes the improvement of the disease, whereas its over-expression/administration induces a worse clinical presentation. This scenario reasonably proposes S100B as a common therapeutic target for several different disorders, also offering new clues to individuate possible unexpected connections among these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Michetti
- Department of Neuroscience, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy; IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, 20132 Milan, Italy.
| | - Gabriele Di Sante
- Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Section of General Pathology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy; Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Largo Agostino Gemelli 1-8, 00168 Rome, Italy.
| | - Maria Elisabetta Clementi
- Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie Chimiche "Giulio Natta" SCITEC-CNR, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy.
| | - Beatrice Sampaolese
- Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie Chimiche "Giulio Natta" SCITEC-CNR, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy.
| | - Patrizia Casalbore
- Institute for Systems Analysis and Computer Science, IASI-CNR, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy.
| | - Cinzia Volonté
- Institute for Systems Analysis and Computer Science, IASI-CNR, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy; Cellular Neurobiology Unit, Preclinical Neuroscience, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Via del Fosso di Fiorano 65, 00143 Rome, Italy.
| | - Vincenzo Romano Spica
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, Laboratory of Epidemiology and Biotechnologies, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Piazza Lauro De Bosis 6, 00135, Rome, Italy.
| | - Pier Paolo Parnigotto
- Foundation for Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Tissue Engineering and Signaling (T.E.S.) Onlus, Padua, Italy.
| | - Rosa Di Liddo
- Foundation for Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Tissue Engineering and Signaling (T.E.S.) Onlus, Padua, Italy; Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padua, Italy.
| | - Susanna Amadio
- Cellular Neurobiology Unit, Preclinical Neuroscience, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Via del Fosso di Fiorano 65, 00143 Rome, Italy.
| | - Francesco Ria
- Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Section of General Pathology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo Francesco Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy; Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Largo Agostino Gemelli 1-8, 00168 Rome, Italy.
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Grotegut P, Perumal N, Kuehn S, Smit A, Dick HB, Grus FH, Joachim SC. Minocycline reduces inflammatory response and cell death in a S100B retina degeneration model. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:375. [PMID: 33317557 PMCID: PMC7737388 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-02012-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous studies noted that intravitreal injection of S100B triggered a glaucoma-like degeneration of retina and optic nerve as well as microglia activation after 14 days. The precise role of microglia in our intravitreal S100B model is still unclear. Hence, microglia were inhibited through minocycline. The aim is to investigate whether microglia have a significant influence on the degeneration process or whether they are only a side effect in the model studied here. METHODS Minocycline was applied daily in rats by intraperitoneal injection using two different concentrations (13.5 mg/kg body weight, 25 mg/kg body weight). One day after treatment start, S100B or PBS was intravitreally injected in one eye per rat. The naïve groups received no injections. This resulted in a total of five groups (naïve n = 14, PBS n = 14, S100B n = 13, 13.5 mg/kg mino n = 15, 25 mg/kg mino n = 15). At day 14, electroretinogram measurements were performed, followed by immunofluorescence and label-free quantitative proteomics analysis. The focus of these investigations was on the survival of RGCs as well as their axons, the response of the microglia, and the identification of further pathological modes of action of S100B. RESULTS The best signal transmission was detected via ERG in the 13.5 mg/kg mino group. The inhibition of the microglia protected optic nerve neurofilaments and decreased the negative impact of S100B on RGCs. However, the minocycline treatment could not trigger complete protection of RGCs. Furthermore, in retina and optic nerve, the minocycline treatment reduced the number and activity of S100B-triggered microglia in a concentration-dependent manner. Proteomics analysis showed that S100B application led to numerous metabolic functions and cellular stress, mainly an increased inflammatory response, glycolysis, and mitochondrial dysfunction, which caused oxidative stress in the retina. Importantly, the protective capability of lower dose of minocycline was unraveled by suppressing the apoptotic, inflammatory, and the altered metabolic processes caused by S100B insult in the retina. CONCLUSION Intravitreally injected S100B not only led to a pro-inflammatory microglial reaction, but also a mitochondrial and metabolic dysfunction. Also, these results suggest that an excessive microglial response may be a significant degenerative factor, but not the only trigger for increased cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pia Grotegut
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Germany
| | - Natarajan Perumal
- Experimental and Translational Ophthalmology, Department of Ophthalmology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Sandra Kuehn
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Germany
| | - Andreas Smit
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Germany
| | - H Burkhard Dick
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Germany
| | - Franz H Grus
- Experimental and Translational Ophthalmology, Department of Ophthalmology, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Stephanie C Joachim
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Germany.
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10
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Intranigral Administration of β-Sitosterol- β-D-Glucoside Elicits Neurotoxic A1 Astrocyte Reactivity and Chronic Neuroinflammation in the Rat Substantia Nigra. J Immunol Res 2020; 2020:5907591. [PMID: 33282962 PMCID: PMC7685831 DOI: 10.1155/2020/5907591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Revised: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic consumption of β-sitosterol-β-D-glucoside (BSSG), a neurotoxin contained in cycad seeds, leads to Parkinson's disease in humans and rodents. Here, we explored whether a single intranigral administration of BSSG triggers neuroinflammation and neurotoxic A1 reactive astrocytes besides dopaminergic neurodegeneration. We injected 6 μg BSSG/1 μL DMSO or vehicle into the left substantia nigra and immunostained with antibodies against tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) together with markers of microglia (OX42), astrocytes (GFAP, S100β, C3), and leukocytes (CD45). We also measured nitric oxide (NO), lipid peroxidation (LPX), and proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6). The Evans blue assay was used to explore the blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability. We found that BSSG activates NO production on days 15 and 30 and LPX on day 120. Throughout the study, high levels of TNF-α were present in BSSG-treated animals, whereas IL-1β was induced until day 60 and IL-6 until day 30. Immunoreactivity of activated microglia (899.0 ± 80.20%) and reactive astrocytes (651.50 ± 11.28%) progressively increased until day 30 and then decreased to remain 251.2 ± 48.8% (microglia) and 91.02 ± 39.8 (astrocytes) higher over controls on day 120. C3(+) cells were also GFAP and S100β immunoreactive, showing they were neurotoxic A1 reactive astrocytes. BBB remained permeable until day 15 when immune cell infiltration was maximum. TH immunoreactivity progressively declined, reaching 83.6 ± 1.8% reduction on day 120. Our data show that BSSG acute administration causes chronic neuroinflammation mediated by activated microglia, neurotoxic A1 reactive astrocytes, and infiltrated immune cells. The severe neuroinflammation might trigger Parkinson's disease in BSSG intoxication.
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11
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Benning L, Reinehr S, Grotegut P, Kuehn S, Stute G, Dick HB, Joachim SC. Synapse and Receptor Alterations in Two Different S100B-Induced Glaucoma-Like Models. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21196998. [PMID: 32977518 PMCID: PMC7583988 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21196998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Glaucoma is identified by an irreversible retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss and optic nerve damage. Over the past few years, the immune system gained importance in its genesis. In a glaucoma-like animal model with intraocular S100B injection, RGC death occurs at 14 days. In an experimental autoimmune glaucoma model with systemic S100B immunization, a loss of RGCs is accompanied by a decreased synaptic signal at 28 days. Here, we aimed to study synaptic alterations in these two models. In one group, rats received a systemic S100B immunization (n = 7/group), while in the other group, S100B was injected intraocularly (n = 6–7/group). Both groups were compared to appropriate controls and investigated after 14 days. While inhibitory post-synapses remained unchanged in both models, excitatory post-synapses degenerated in animals with intraocular S100B injection (p = 0.03). Excitatory pre-synapses tendentially increased in animals with systemic S100B immunization (p = 0.08) and significantly decreased in intraocular ones (p = 0.04). Significantly more N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors (both p ≤ 0.04) as well as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors (both p < 0.03) were observed in S100B animals in both models. We assume that an upregulation of these receptors causes the interacting synapse types to degenerate. Heightened levels of excitatory pre-synapses could be explained by remodeling followed by degeneration.
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12
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Gassel CJ, Reinehr S, Gomes SC, Dick HB, Joachim SC. Preservation of optic nerve structure by complement inhibition in experimental glaucoma. Cell Tissue Res 2020; 382:293-306. [PMID: 32676862 PMCID: PMC8285355 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-020-03240-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Glaucoma is characterized by a progressive damage of the retina and the optic nerve. Despite a huge research interest, the exact pathomechanisms are still unknown. In the experimental autoimmune glaucoma model, rats develop glaucoma-like damage of the retina and the optic nerve after immunization with an optic nerve antigen homogenate (ONA). An early activation of the complement system, even before optic nerve degeneration, was reported in this model. Here, we investigated the effects of a monoclonal antibody against complement factor C5 on optic nerves. Rats were immunized with ONA and compared to controls. In one eye of some ONA animals, the antibody against C5 was intravitreally injected (15 μmol: ONA + C5-I or 25 μmol: ONA + C5-II) before immunization and then every 2 weeks. After 6 weeks, optic nerves were processed for histology (n = 6/group). These analyses demonstrated that the intravitreal therapy reduced the depositions of the membrane attack complex compared to ONA animals (ONA + C5-I: p = 0.005; ONA + C5-II: p = 0.002). Cellular infiltration was significantly reduced in the ONA + C5-I group (p = 0.003), but not in ONA + C5-II tissues (p = 0.41). Furthermore, SMI-32 staining revealed that neurofilament was preserved in both treatment groups compared to ONA optic nerves (both p = 0.002). A decreased amount of microglia was found in treated animals in comparison to the ONA group (ONA + C5-I: p = 0.03; ONA + C5-II: p = 0.009). We observed, for the first time, that a complement system inhibition could prevent optic nerve damage in an autoimmune glaucoma model. Therefore, complement inhibition could serve as a new therapeutic tool for glaucoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline J Gassel
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Germany
| | - Sabrina Reinehr
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Germany
| | - Sara C Gomes
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Germany
| | - H Burkhard Dick
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Germany
| | - Stephanie C Joachim
- Experimental Eye Research Institute, University Eye Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, In der Schornau 23-25, 44892, Bochum, Germany.
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13
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Destructive Effect of Intravitreal Heat Shock Protein 27 Application on Retinal Ganglion Cells and Neurofilament. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21020549. [PMID: 31952234 PMCID: PMC7014083 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21020549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Heat shock protein 27 (HSP27) is commonly involved in cellular stress. Increased levels of HSP27 as well as autoantibodies against this protein were previously detected in glaucoma patients. Moreover, systemic immunization with HSP27 induced glaucoma-like damage in rodents. Now, for the first time, the direct effects of an intravitreal HSP27 application were investigated. For this reason, HSP27 or phosphate buffered saline (PBS, controls) was applied intravitreally in rats (n = 12/group). The intraocular pressure (IOP) as well as the electroretinogram recordings were comparable in HSP27 and control eyes 21 days after the injection. However, significantly fewer retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and amacrine cells were observed in the HSP27 group via immunohistochemistry and western blot analysis. The number of bipolar cells, on the other hand, was similar in both groups. Interestingly, a stronger neurofilament degeneration was observed in HSP27 optic nerves, while no differences were noted regarding the myelination state. In summary, intravitreal HSP27 injection led to an IOP-independent glaucoma-like damage. A degeneration of RGCs as well as their axons and amacrine cells was noted. This suggests that high levels of extracellular HSP27 could have a direct damaging effect on RGCs.
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