Biogenic Amine Contents in Non-alcoholic Beers: Screening and Optimization of Derivatization

The Measurement of Hazardous Biogenic Amines in Non-Alcoholic Beers: Efficient and Applicable Miniaturized Electro-Membrane Extraction Joined to Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

The determination of biogenic amines (BAs) as serious food contaminants and chemical indicators of unwanted microbial contamination or deficient processing conditions in non-alcoholic beers is of great interest for the beverage industries. In the present investigation, the combination of hollow fiber-electro-membrane extraction (HF-EME) and dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) was applied for the analysis of histamine, putrescine, tyramine, cadaverine in non-alcoholic beers. EME is fundamentally based on the electrostatic attraction, diffusion and solvability of analytes in a selected acceptor phase. This membrane-based extraction technique promoted selectivity and the enrichment factor. The DLLME process reduced the volumes of organic solvents and make the coupling of HF-EME to the CG/MS conceivable. The leading variables, which have a great effect on extraction recovery, were optimized. The relative standard deviation was achieved between 4.9 and 7.0%. The recoveries were between 94% and 98%. The limit of detection and limit of quantification were found to be 0.92-0.98 ng mL^-1 and 3.03-3.23 ng mL^-1, respectively. The enrichment factor was calculated in the range 36-41. The achievements revealed that putrescine and tyramine, with concentrations of 3.87 and 2.33 µg g^-1, were at the highest concentration in non-alcoholic beers. This offered method with great benefits could help beverage industries to monitor the concentration of BAs in beers and control them.

Update on Biogenic Amines in Fermented and Non-Fermented Beverages

The formation of biogenic amines in food and beverages is mainly due to the presence of proteins and/or free amino acids that represent the substrates for microbial or natural enzymes with decarboxylation or amination activity. Fermentation occurring in many alcoholic beverages, such as wine, beer, cider, liqueurs, as well as coffee and tea, is one of the main processes affecting their production. Some biogenic amines can also be naturally present in some fruit juices or fruit-based drinks. The dietary intake of such compounds should consider all their potential sources by both foods and drinks, taking in account the health impact on some consumers that represent categories at risk for a deficient metabolic activity or assuming inhibiting drugs. The most important tool to avoid their adverse effects is based on prevention through the selection of lactic acid bacteria with low decarboxylating activity or good manufacturing practices hurdling the favoring conditions on biogenic amines' production.

Simultaneous derivatization and liquid-solid phase transition microextraction of six biogenic amines in foods followed by narrowbore liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection

Biogenic amines are quality control criteria for foods that are potentially toxic to humans. In this study, amidation derivatization for biogenic amines and liquid-solid phase transition microextraction were carried out simultaneously for food sample pretreatment. The derivatization reaction was executed in one pot with coumarin-3-carboxylic acid as the derivatizing reagent and (1-cyano-2-ethoxy-2-oxoethylidenaminooxy)dimethylamino-morpholino-carbenium hexafluorophosphate as the coupling agent. Liquid-solid phase transition microextraction was achieved by the salting-out effect, using a phase change salt (1 M disodium hydrogen phosphate) solution. The combined derivatization and microextraction process was completed within 3 min at 30 °C, and the liquid top phase was easily obtained by placing the tube in an ice bath. Finally, a narrowbore liquid chromatograph coupled with a UV detector was used to determine the levels of six biogenic amines. The coupling agent-assisted derivatization and liquid-solid phase transition microextraction parameters were also investigated. The quantitative linear ranges were 3-400 μM for histamine, putrescine, spermidine, cadaverine, and tyramine and 5-400 μM for spermine, and the detection limit was 1 μM. The relative standard deviations of the intra- and inter-batches were <5.3% and 8.4%, respectively, while the relative error was <4.5% for both. We successfully applied this simultaneous derivatization-microextraction method to determine the biogenic amines in fermented foods.

Biogenic Amines in Alcohol-Free Beverages

Biogenic amines are ubiquitous bioactive compounds that are synthesized by living organisms and perform essential functions for their metabolism. In the human diet, their excessive intake can cause food poisoning. In food, especially in alcohol-free beverages, biogenic amines can be synthesized by enzymes, naturally present in raw materials, or by microorganisms, which may be naturally present in the matrix or be added during beverage transformation processes. For this reason, in alcohol-free beverages, biogenic amine amount can be considered, above a certain level, as undesired microorganism activity. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the biogenic amine profile of non-alcoholic beverages in order to monitor food quality and safety. Moreover, biogenic amines can be taken into account by industries in order to monitor production processes and products. This review article provides an overview on the biogenic amine profile of alcohol-free beverages (plant milk, nervine drinks, soft drinks, and fruit juices). Furthermore, the clinical and toxicological effects, the biogenic amines legislation, and biogenic amine synthesis have been evaluated in non-alcoholic beverages.

The Importance of Derivatizing Reagent in Chromatography Applications for Biogenic Amine Detection in Food and Beverages

Biogenic amines (BA) are chemical compounds formed in foods that contain protein, allowing the foods to undergo a bacterial degradation process. Biogenic amines are labeled as toxic food because its consumption exceeding the FDA regulation (50 mg/kg) can be harmful to humans. Some countries also have regulations that prohibit the consumption of biogenic amines in high concentrations, especially histamine. The chromatography methods generally applied by researchers are liquid chromatography (LC) and gas chromatography (GC), where the use of a derivatization reagent is necessary to increase their sensitivity. This review is based on past and present studies about biogenic amine detection related to food samples. The rationale of this study is also to provide data on the comparison of the analytical approaches between LC and GC methods. Furthermore, the various approaches of biogenic amine determination and the most applied analytical methods have been reviewed.

Environmentally friendly solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry for the determination of biogenic amines in fish samples

In this work, a facile and environmentally friendly solid-phase microextraction assay based on on-fiber derivatization coupled with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry was developed for determining four nonvolatile index biogenic amines (putrescine, cadaverine, histamine, and tyramine) in fish samples. In the assay, the fiber was firstly dipped into a solution with isobutyl chloroformate as derivatization reagent and isooctane as extraction solvent. Thus, a thin organic liquid membrane coating was developed. Then the modified fiber was immersed into sample solution to extract four important bioamines. Afterwards, the fiber was directly inserted into gas chromatography injection port for thermal desorption. 1,7-Diaminoheptane was employed as internal standard reagent for quantification of the targets. The limits of detection of the method were 2.98-45.3 μg/kg. The proposed method was successfully applied to the detection of bioamines in several fish samples with recoveries ranging 78.9-110%. The organic reagent used for extraction was as few as microliter that can greatly reduce the harm to manipulator and environment. Moreover, the extraction procedures were very simple without concentration and elution procedures, which can greatly simplify the pretreatment process. The assay can be extended to the in situ screening of other pollutant in food safety by changing the derivatization reagent.

Recent Advances in the Determination of Biogenic Amines in Food Samples by (U)HPLC

The determination of biogenic amines (BAs) in food products stirs increasing interest because of the implications in toxicological and food quality issues. Apart from these aspects, in recent years, the relevance of BAs because of some organoleptic and descriptive concerns has been pointed out by several researchers. This overview aims at revising recent advances in the determination of BAs in food samples based on liquid chromatography. In particular, papers published in the past five years have been commented. Special attention has been paid to the great possibilities of ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography and high-resolution mass spectrometry. With regard to applications, apart from the determination of BAs in a wide range of food matrices, novel lines of research focused on the characterization, classification, and authentication of food products based on chemometrics have also been discussed.

Occurrence of biogenic amines in beers produced with malted organic Emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum)

Because several groups of microorganisms are able to decarboxylate amino acids, the presence of biogenic amines (BA) can be seen as an index of the microbiological quality of the brewing process. BAs were quantified for the first time in the intermediate products and craft beers produced with malted organic Emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum) in a small size brewery in order to assess the possible presence of critical control points related to biological hazard in the brewing process. BA levels in beers produced exclusively from malted organic Emmer wheat were between 15.4 and 25.2 mg l(-1) in the samples of light beer (Lt) and between 8.9 and 15.3 mg l(-1) in double malt beers (DM) ready for consumption (the beers stored for 90 days at 1-2°C). Cadaverine and tyramine were the main BAs in the Lt and DM beers, respectively. Increased concentrations of BAs seemed to be more related to the heat treatment of the processing product during mashing and wort boiling, rather than to the fermentation process. Much lower concentrations were found in finished beers obtained from 50% malted organic Emmer wheat and 50% malted barley (up to 3.2 mg l(-1)) or from 30% malted Emmer wheat (up to 8.3 mg l(-1)). Thus, Emmer wheat malt can be a useful alternative to wheat and spelt for the production of beer with a limited content of BA, if the processing technology is kept under control.