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Tan H, Zhou H, Guo T, Zhou Y, Wang S, Liu X, Zhang Y, Ma L. Matrix-associated mycotoxins in foods, cereals and feedstuffs: A review on occurrence, detection, transformation and future challenges. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 64:3206-3219. [PMID: 36205056 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2131724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Matrix-associated mycotoxins that bind with macromolecular components through covalent or non-covalent interactions easily occur in various cereals, cereal-based products, and cereal-based feedstuff. They are "masked" by macro-components, causing the underestimation of total exposure risk of mycotoxins. Most of the current reports focus on the free and modified mycotoxins, while the matrix-associated forms are ignored but still can exert toxic effects after ingestion. In this paper, current researches and future prospects of matrix-associated mycotoxins are reviewed. Especially, a focus is set on the transformation of matrix-associated mycotoxins with their free forms during metabolism and food processing. Enzymes, temperature and pH levels during food processing can induce the interconversion of matrix-associated mycotoxins with free mycotoxins. Furthermore, the analytical methods targeted on matrix-associated mycotoxins are discussed. Due to the lack of efficient methods releasing the mycotoxins from matrix, the standard analytical methods has not developed so far. Also, we further analyzed the challenges of matrix-associated mycotoxins about variety, occurrence, toxicity and transformation, exposure assessment, which contributes to establish preventive measures to control their hazards for consumers. Overall, this overview is significant for perfecting risk assessment, as well as developing effective prevention and control actions to matrix-associated mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongxia Tan
- College of Food Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
| | - Hongyuan Zhou
- College of Food Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Speciality Food Co-Built by Sichuan and Chongqing, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Citrus Fruits, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
| | - Ting Guo
- College of Food Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Speciality Food Co-Built by Sichuan and Chongqing, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Citrus Fruits, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
| | - Ying Zhou
- College of Food Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Citrus Fruits, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
| | - Shuo Wang
- College of Food Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- School of Medicine, Tianjin Key Lab Food Science and Health, Nankai University, Tianjin, P.R. China
| | - Xiaozhu Liu
- Foshan Micro Wonders Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Guangdong, P.R. China
| | - Yuhao Zhang
- College of Food Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Speciality Food Co-Built by Sichuan and Chongqing, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing (Southwest University), Ministry of Education, Chongqing, P.R. China
| | - Liang Ma
- College of Food Science, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Speciality Food Co-Built by Sichuan and Chongqing, Chongqing, P.R. China
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control of Citrus Fruits, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Southwest University, Chongqing, P.R. China
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Optimization and Validation of an Analytical Method for the Determination of Free and Hidden Fumonisins in Corn and Corn Products by UHPLC-MS/MS. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-021-01984-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Schaarschmidt S, Fauhl-Hassek C. The fate of mycotoxins during secondary food processing of maize for human consumption. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2020; 20:91-148. [PMID: 33443798 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2020] [Revised: 07/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are naturally occurring fungal metabolites that are associated with health hazards and are widespread in cereals including maize. The most common mycotoxins in maize that occur at relatively high levels are fumonisins (FBs), zearalenone, and aflatoxins; furthermore, other mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol and ochratoxin A are frequently present in maize. For these toxins, maximum levels are laid down in the European Union (EU) for maize raw materials and maize-based foods. The current review article gives a comprehensive overview on the different mycotoxins (including mycotoxins not regulated by EU law) and their fate during secondary processing of maize, based on the data published in the scientific literature. Furthermore, potential compliance with the EU maximum levels is discussed where appropriate. In general, secondary processing can impact mycotoxins in various ways. Besides changes in mycotoxin levels due to fractionation, dilution, and/or concentration, mycotoxins can be affected in their chemical structure (causing degradation or modification) or be released from or bound to matrix components. In the current review, a special focus is set on the effect on mycotoxins caused by different heat treatments, namely, baking, roasting, frying, (pressure) cooking, and extrusion cooking. Production processes involving multiple heat treatments are exemplified with the cornflakes production. For that, potential compliance with FB maximum levels was assessed. Moreover, effects of fermentation of maize matrices and production of maize germ oil are covered by this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Schaarschmidt
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
| | - Carsten Fauhl-Hassek
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
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Pok P, Londoño VG, Aransibia S, Vicente S, Pacín A, Resnik S. Free and hidden fumonisins in Argentinean raw maize samples. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2020. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2019.2484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The concentrations of free fumonisins (FBs) and hydrolysed fumonisins (HFBs) were determined in 72 maize samples collected in 2017 from five Argentine provinces. The methodology for HFBs analysis consisted of alkaline hydrolysis followed by high performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD). The developed analytical methodology presented percentages of recovery greater than 74%. Limits of detection were 4.5, 13.0 and 12.9 μg/kg for HFB1, HFB2 and HFB3, respectively. Presence of FBs was found in 86% of the samples. In all cases, the concentration of total HFBs (after the hydrolysis treatment) was superior to the free FBs content (HFBs to FBs median ratio of 2.5), which indicates the presence of hidden fumonisins in Argentinean maize. 8% of the traditionally analysed samples exceeded the limit established by the European Commission for FB1 + FB2. When applying alkaline hydrolysis to the samples, 24% of them exceed this limit.
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Affiliation(s)
- P.S. Pok
- CONICET – Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Tecnología de Alimentos y Procesos Químicos (ITAPROQ), Intendente Güiraldes 2160, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamentos de Química Orgánica e Industrias, Intendente Güiraldes 2160, Ciudad Autónoma Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - V.A. García Londoño
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamentos de Química Orgánica e Industrias, Intendente Güiraldes 2160, Ciudad Autónoma Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de la República Argentina, Godoy Cruz 2290, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Fundación de Investigaciones Científicas Teresa Benedicta de la Cruz, Dorronzoro 141, Luján, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - S.P. Aransibia
- Fundación de Investigaciones Científicas Teresa Benedicta de la Cruz, Dorronzoro 141, Luján, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Comisión de Investigaciones Científicas de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Calle 526 e/10 y 11, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - S. Vicente
- Fundación de Investigaciones Científicas Teresa Benedicta de la Cruz, Dorronzoro 141, Luján, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Comisión de Investigaciones Científicas de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Calle 526 e/10 y 11, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - A.M. Pacín
- Fundación de Investigaciones Científicas Teresa Benedicta de la Cruz, Dorronzoro 141, Luján, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - S.L. Resnik
- Fundación de Investigaciones Científicas Teresa Benedicta de la Cruz, Dorronzoro 141, Luján, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Comisión de Investigaciones Científicas de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Calle 526 e/10 y 11, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Prevalent Mycotoxins in Animal Feed: Occurrence and Analytical Methods. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11050290. [PMID: 31121952 PMCID: PMC6563184 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Today, we have been witnessing a steady tendency in the increase of global demand for maize, wheat, soybeans, and their products due to the steady growth and strengthening of the livestock industry. Thus, animal feed safety has gradually become more important, with mycotoxins representing one of the most significant hazards. Mycotoxins comprise different classes of secondary metabolites of molds. With regard to animal feed, aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes, and zearalenone are the more prevalent ones. In this review, several constraints posed by these contaminants at economical and commercial levels will be discussed, along with the legislation established in the European Union to restrict mycotoxins levels in animal feed. In addition, the occurrence of legislated mycotoxins in raw materials and their by-products for the feeds of interest, as well as in the feeds, will be reviewed. Finally, an overview of the different sample pretreatment and detection techniques reported for mycotoxin analysis will be presented, the main weaknesses of current methods will be highlighted.
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Damiani T, Righetti L, Suman M, Galaverna G, Dall’Asta C. Analytical issue related to fumonisins: A matter of sample comminution? Food Control 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Ponce-García N, Serna-Saldivar SO, Garcia-Lara S. Fumonisins and their analogues in contaminated corn and its processed foods - a review. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2018; 35:2183-2203. [PMID: 30028638 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2018.1502476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
One of the food security problems faced worldwide is the occurrence of mycotoxins in grains and their foods. Fumonisins (FBs) are mycotoxins which are prevalent in corn (Zea mays L.) and its based foods. Their intake and exposure have been epidemiologically and inconclusively associated with oesophageal cancer and neural tube defects in humans, and other harmful health effects in animals. The toxic effects of FBs can be acute or chronic and these metabolites bioaccumulate mainly in liver and kidney tissues. Among FBs, fumonisin B1 (FB1) is the most relevant moiety although the 'hidden' forms produced after food thermal processes are becoming relevant. Corn is the grain most susceptible to Fusarium and FBs contamination and the mould growth is affected both by abiotic and biotic factors during grain maturation and storage. Mould counts are mainly affected by the grain water activity, the environmental temperature during grain maturation and insect damage. The abiotic factors affected by climatic change patterns have increased their incidence in other regions of the world. Among FBs, the hidden forms are the most difficult to detect and quantify. Single or combined physical, chemical and biological methods are emerging to significantly reduce FBs in processed foods and therefore diminish their toxicological effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nestor Ponce-García
- a Center of Biotechnology FEMSA , School of Engineering and Sciences, Tecnologico de Monterrey , Monterrey , Mexico.,b Faculty of Agricultural Sciences , Autonomous University of Mexico State, UAEM, Campus Universitario "El Cerrillo" , Toluca , Mexico
| | - Sergio O Serna-Saldivar
- a Center of Biotechnology FEMSA , School of Engineering and Sciences, Tecnologico de Monterrey , Monterrey , Mexico
| | - Silverio Garcia-Lara
- a Center of Biotechnology FEMSA , School of Engineering and Sciences, Tecnologico de Monterrey , Monterrey , Mexico
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Knutsen HK, Alexander J, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Edler L, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, Dall'Asta C, Eriksen GS, Taranu I, Altieri A, Roldán-Torres R, Oswald IP. Risks for animal health related to the presence of fumonisins, their modified forms and hidden forms in feed. EFSA J 2018; 16:e05242. [PMID: 32625894 PMCID: PMC7009563 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Fumonisins, mycotoxins primarily produced by Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum, occur predominantly in cereal grains, especially in maize. The European Commission asked EFSA for a scientific opinion on the risk to animal health related to fumonisins and their modified and hidden forms in feed. Fumonisin B1 (FB 1), FB 2 and FB 3 are the most common forms of fumonisins in feedstuffs and thus were included in the assessment. FB 1, FB 2 and FB 3 have the same mode of action and were considered as having similar toxicological profile and potencies. For fumonisins, the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) identified no-observed-adverse-effect levels (NOAELs) for cattle, pig, poultry (chicken, ducks and turkeys), horse, and lowest-observed-adverse-effect levels (LOAELs) for fish (extrapolated from carp) and rabbits. No reference points could be identified for sheep, goats, dogs, cats and mink. The dietary exposure was estimated on 18,140 feed samples on FB 1-3 representing most of the feed commodities with potential presence of fumonisins. Samples were collected between 2003 and 2016 from 19 different European countries, but most of them from four Member States. To take into account the possible occurrence of hidden forms, an additional factor of 1.6, derived from the literature, was applied to the occurrence data. Modified forms of fumonisins, for which no data were identified concerning both the occurrence and the toxicity, were not included in the assessment. Based on mean exposure estimates, the risk of adverse health effects of feeds containing FB 1-3 was considered very low for ruminants, low for poultry, horse, rabbits, fish and of potential concern for pigs. The same conclusions apply to the sum of FB 1-3 and their hidden forms, except for pigs for which the risk of adverse health effect was considered of concern.
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Li Y, Zhang J, Wang Y, Mao X, Liu H, Sun C, Liu Y, Gao Y, Zhang Z, An X. Immunity Theory-Based High-Specific Monoclonal Antibody Preparation and Application of Fumonisin B1. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-017-0912-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Bryła M, Waśkiewicz A, Szymczyk K, Jędrzejczak R. Effects of pH and Temperature on the Stability of Fumonisins in Maize Products. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E88. [PMID: 28257053 PMCID: PMC5371843 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9030088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Revised: 02/20/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper is a study of the stability of fumonisins in dough based on maize flour prepared in a phosphate buffer with a pH of 3.5, 5.5 or 7.5 and baked at a temperature within the range of 100-250 °C. Buffers with various pH values were tested, since it is well-known that pH may significantly influence interactions of fumonisins with other substances. A standard analytical procedure was used to determine the concentration of free fumonisins. Hydrolysis in an alkaline medium was then applied to reveal the hidden forms, while the total fumonisins concentations was determined in another measurement. The total concentration of fumonisins was statistically higher in pH = 3.5 and pH = 5.5 than the concentration of free fumonisins; no similar difference was found at pH = 7.5. The applied phosphate buffer pH 7.5 may enhance solubility of fumonisins, which would increase extraction efficiency of free analytes, thereby decreasing the difference between concentrations of total and free fumonisins. Hydrolysed B₁ fumonisin (HFB₁) and partially hydrolysed B₁ fumonisin (isomers a and b: PHFB1a and PHFB1b, respectively) were the main investigated substances. For baking temperatures below 220 °C, fumonisins were slightly more stable for pH = 5.5 than for pH = 3.5 and pH = 7.5. In both of these latter cases, the concentration of partially hydrolysed fumonisins grew initially (up to 200 °C) with an increase in the baking temperature, and then dropped. Similar behaviour was observed for free HFB₁, which may suggest the following fumonisin degradation mechanism: initially, the tricarballylic acid (TCA) groups are removed from the molecules, and next, the HFB₁ molecules disintegrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Bryła
- Department of Food Analysis, Prof. Waclaw Dabrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology, Rakowiecka 36, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka Waśkiewicz
- Department of Chemistry, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 75, 60-625 Poznan, Poland.
| | - Krystyna Szymczyk
- Department of Food Analysis, Prof. Waclaw Dabrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology, Rakowiecka 36, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Renata Jędrzejczak
- Department of Food Analysis, Prof. Waclaw Dabrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology, Rakowiecka 36, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland.
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Esposito F, Fasano E, Scognamiglio G, Nardone A, Triassi M, Cirillo T. Exposure assessment to fumonisins B1, B2 and B3 through consumption of gluten-free foodstuffs intended for people affected by celiac disease. Food Chem Toxicol 2016; 97:395-401. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2016.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Revised: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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