Determination of Biogenic Amines in Fish Meat and Fermented Foods Using Column-Switching High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection

Experimental Design Application for Measuring Histamine in Tuna Fish Samples by Phenyl Isothiocyanate Derivation Method Using Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography

Histamine as an important biogenic amino acid was measured in tuna fish samples by ultra-performance liquid chromatography using a phenyl isothiocyanate derivative. Minitab software was used to design the experiment and investigate the effective factors during the process, which includes screening and optimization steps. A partial factorial design was used in the screening stage and a central composite design was used in the optimization. Effective parameters in histamine derivatized were examined in the screening step including triethylamine volume, phenyl isothiocyanate volume, reaction temperature, reaction time and mobile phase pH. Then, in the optimization, effective parameters were identified and finally, the calibration curve was drawn from a concentration of 0.5-10.0 μg.mL-1 for histamine derivatized and a correlation coefficient of 0.994 was obtained for histamine derivatized. The method detection limit was 0.36 μg.mL-1 and the limit of quantification (LOQ) was 1.19 μg.mL-1. The relative standard deviation of the method was obtained for concentrations of 1.0-100.0 μg.mL-1 in the range between 1.06 and 2.21%. The recovery method was obtained from 90.8 to 103.1% for measuring histamine derivatized in real fish samples.

Host-Guest Chemosensor Ensembles based on Water-Soluble Sulfonated Calix[n]arenes and a Pyranoflavylium Dye for the Optical Detection of Biogenic Amines

Biogenic amines (BAs) are biologically active nitrogen-containing compounds formed during the food spoilage process and are often related as key markers of food quality, safety, and freshness. Because their presence in foods at high levels can cause significant health problems, researchers have been focused on developing novel strategies and methods for early detection and capture of these analytes. Herein, water-soluble sulfonated calix[n]arene macrocycles (SC4, SC6, and SC8) and a pH-sensitive dye (4'-hydroxy-10-methylpyranoflavylium) were investigated as host-guest systems for BA sensing. The hosts were able to bind the flavylium cation of the dye with association constants of 103 to 104 M-1. The dye complexation also allowed tuning its pKa from 6.72 (free) toward high values: 7.68 (SC4), 7.79 (SC6), and 8.45 (SC8). These data were crucial to optimize the host-guest complexes as optical sensing systems for putrescine/tyramine (pH 7.2-7.6), yielding a colorimetric redshift from yellow to red. The BA sensing was also demonstrated by fluorescence quenching for the calix[n]arene/dye complexes and fluorescence recovery after the addition of BAs. 1H NMR spectroscopy was used to demonstrate the interaction mode, confirming an encapsulation-driven mechanism. Overall, these host-guest systems demonstrated great potential for the detection of BAs, one of the main key markers of food spoilage.

New Cyanostyrylcopillar[5]arene Derivative: Synthesis, Photophysical Study, Chromogenic Detection of Aliphatic Amines, and Biofilm-Antibiofilm Activity

The synthesis, characterization, and application of a new cyanostyrylcopillar[5]arene 1 is reported. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction and other spectroscopic techniques confirm the identity of the new copillar 1. The X-ray diffraction study reveals that the copillar 1 exhibits a 1D supramolecular chain in the solid state involving π···π interactions along the crystallographic c-axis and 1D chains are further connected by interchain C-H···π interactions to establish 2D supramolecular layers within the crystallographic bc-plane. 2D supramolecular chains on further packing introduce a 3D structure with void spaces filled with hexane molecules. Through minimal deviation in the dihedral angle, the cyano-substituted ethylenic group in 1 shows a conjugation with the phenolic -OH, favoring intramolecular bond conjugation (ITBC) and colorimetrically detects the aliphatic amines over aromatic amines in CH3CN. Among the aliphatic amines, tertiary amines are differentiated from primary and secondary amines by the naked eye through color change. Both in solution and solid states, 1 displays vapor phase detection of volatile aliphatic amines. Antibacterial activity analysis shows that while 1 exhibits the antibiofilm action against Gram-positive pathogenic bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, it promotes biofilm formation by Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Multiplex Detection of Biogenic Amines for Meat Freshness Monitoring Using Nanoplasmonic Colorimetric Sensor Array

Biogenic amines (BAs) were presented as significant markers for the evaluation of the spoilage of meat and meat products. In this work, a colorimetric sensor array was developed for the discrimination and detection of spermine (SP), spermidine (SD), histamine (HS), and tryptamine (TP) as important BAs in food assessment. For this aim, two important spherical plasmonic nanoparticles, namely gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), were utilized as the sensing elements of the probes. The cross-reactive interaction of the target biogenic amines and the plasmonic nanoparticles caused the aggregation-induced UV-Vis spectra changes, which were accompanied by visual color variation in the solution. The collected responses were analyzed by principal component analysis-linear discrimination analysis (PCA-LDA) to classify the four BAs. This colorimetric sensor array can also discriminate between the individual BAs and their mixture accurately. Partial least squares regression (PLS-R) was also utilized for quantitative analysis of the BAs. The wide linear concentration ranges of 0.1-10.0 µM for the four BAs and desirable figures of merits (FOMs) showed the potential of the developed sensor for quantitative detection of the BAs. Finally, the practical ability of the developed probe was studied by the determination of the BAs in the meat samples, which successfully proved the potential of the colorimetric sensor array in a food sample.

Application of smart packaging for seafood: A comprehensive review

Nowadays, due to the changes in lifestyle and great interest of consumers in a healthy life, people have started increasing their seafood consumption. But due to their short shelf life, experts are looking for a new packaging called smart packaging (SMP) for seafood. There are different indicators/sensors in SMP; one of the effective indices is time-temperature, which can show consumers the best time of using seafood based on their shelf life and experienced temperature. Another one is radio-frequency identification (RFID) that is a transmission device that represents a separate form of the electronic information-based SMP systems. RFID does not belong to any of the categories of markers or sensors; it is an auto recognition system that applies cordless sensors to indicate segments and collect real-time information without manual interposition. This review covers the use of SMP in all marine foods, including fish, due to its high consumption and high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-3), which are the considerable factors of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids for human.

Recent advances in development of electrochemical biosensors for the detection of biogenic amines

Biogenic amines (BAs) are widely found in food as a consequence of diverse factors including free amino acid availability, microbial production of decarboxylases, and variations in processing and storage conditions. Hence, BAs are considered as an important marker for determining the freshness and quality of food. Owing to the documentation of BAs in different dietary products, their numerous negative impacts on human health have reported to be a serious concern in past few decades. Therefore, the quantification of these chemical species in food becomes crucial as it can immensely contributes toward control of new episodes on food intoxication in humans. In this line, various chromatographic and colorimetric methods have been developed to detect BAs. However, these methods are in use from a longer time, still are limited by high cost, lengthy procedures, huge infrastructure and skilled personnel requirements that hinder their on-field application. In pursuit of a reliable method offering accurate detection of BAs, this review presents the state-of-the-art of electrochemical strategies for BAs sensing in food. The core of the review discusses about the widely employed electrochemical transducers, such as amperometric, potentiometric, impedimetric and conductometric-based BAs biosensors with significant findings of research work conducted previously. The application of electrochemical sensors to analyze BAs in different fields including food systems (fermented and non-fermented types) and smart packaging systems has been reviewed. Moreover, existing challenges and further available prospects for the development of rapid, facile, and sensitive electrochemical strategies for on-site determination of BAs have also been discussed.

A combination of a graphene quantum dots-cationic red dye donor-acceptor pair and cucurbit[7]uril as a supramolecular sensor for ultrasensitive detection of cancer biomarkers spermine and spermidine

In a unique approach, the combination of a donor-acceptor pair of hydroxy graphene quantum dots (GQDs-OH) and a red-emissive donor-two-acceptor (D-2-A) type dye with pyridinium units (BPBP) and the well-known host cucurbit[7]uril (CB[7]) has been exploited as a supramolecular sensing assembly for the detection of cancer biomarkers spermine and spermidine in aqueous media at the sub-ppb level based on the affinity-driven exchange of guests from the CB[7] portal. In the binary conjugate, green fluorescent GQDs-OH transfers energy to trigger the emission of the dye BPBP and itself remains in the turn-off state. CB[7] withdraws the dye from the surface of GQDs-OH by strong host-guest interactions with its portal, making GQDs-OH fluoresce again to produce a ratiometric response. In the presence of spermine (SP) or spermidine (SPD), their strong affinity with CB[7] forces the ejection of the fluorophore to settle on the GQDs-OH surface, and the strong green emission of GQDs-OH turns off to device a supramolecular sensor for the detection of SP/SPD. The DFT studies revealed interesting excited-state charge-transfer conjugate formation between BPBP and GQDs leading to turn-on emission of the dye, and further supported the stronger binding modes of BPBP-CB[7], indicating the retrieval of the emission of GQDs. The assembly-disassembly based sensing mechanism was also established by Job's plot analysis, particle size analysis, zeta potential, time-resolved spectroscopy, ITC studies, microscopic studies, etc. The supramolecular sensing assembly is highly selective to SP and SPD, and showed nominal interference from other biogenic amines, amino acids, various metal ions, and anions. The limits of detection (LODs) were 0.1 ppb and 0.9 ppb for spermine and spermidine, respectively. The potential for the real-world application of this sensing assembly was demonstrated by spiking SP and SPD in human urine and blood serum with a high %recovery.

Effect of Storage Temperature and Time on Biogenic Amines in Canned Seafood

Biogenic amines in canned seafood are associated with food quality and human health. In this study, a total of nine biogenic amines (histamine (HIS), phenylethylamine (PHE), tyramine (TYM), putrescine (PUT), cadaverine (CAD), tryptamine (TRY), spermine (SPM), spermidine (SPD), and octopamine (OCT)) were used as standards. The biogenic amines of five canned seafood species (canned mud carp, canned sardine, canned mantis shrimp, canned scallop, and canned oyster) were investigated every three months for 12 months at different storage temperatures (4, 10, 25, and 30 °C). The biogenic amine contents were determined by the ultrasound-assisted dispersive solid-phase extraction method combined with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array detection (UADSPE-RPLC-PDA). These results showed a detection rate of 100, 60, and 40% for HIS, PHE, PUT, and TYM; CAD, SPM, and SPD; OCT in all the samples, respectively. The contents of histamine and tyramine exceeded the recommended maximum limits (50 and 100 mg kg−1) in the canned mud carp and canned scallop when stored at 30 °C, indicating their potential health risks (p < 0.05). This result also indicates that low temperatures could inhibit the BAs content of canned seafood during storage. Overall, storage temperature and time can be used as the primary means to monitor and control the quality and safety of canned seafood.

The Effects of Different Processing Methods on the Levels of Biogenic Amines in Zijuan Tea

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of processing methods on the content of biogenic amines in Zijuan tea by using derivatization and hot trichloroacetic acid extraction with HPLC-UV. The results showed that the most abundant biogenic amine in the original leaves was butylamine, followed by ethylamine, methylamine, 1,7-diaminoheptane, histamine, tyramine, and 2-phenethylamine. However, during the process of producing green tea, white tea, and black tea, the content of ethylamine increased sharply, which directly led to their total contents of biogenic amines increasing by 184.4%, 169.3%, and 178.7% compared with that of the original leaves, respectively. Unexpectedly, the contents of methylamine, ethylamine, butylamine, and tyramine in dark tea were significantly reduced compared with those of the original leaves. Accordingly, the total content of biogenic amines in dark tea was only 161.19 μg/g, a reduction of 47.2% compared with that of the original leaves, indicating that the pile-fermentation process could significantly degrade the biogenic amines present in dark tea.

Chemosensor Strip from Kepok Banana Bracts Extract (Musa paradisiaca L.) for Detection of Tuna Freshness

Anthocyanins as chemosensory compounds for amines have been tested in this study. Because anthocyanins are sensitive to pH changes, while amines have an alkaline nature, they can cause structural changes in anthocyanins, resulting in changes in the color of anthocyanins. The source of anthocyanins was the Kepok banana bracts (Musa paradisiaca L.), which were extracted using a mixture of ethanol:HCl 0.15% (3:2). The types of anthocyanin compounds were characterized using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer. The anthocyanin content obtained varied from 1.26 mg/100 g to 5.08 mg/100 g. The type of anthocyanin in the Kepok banana bracts was found as a cyanidin-3-rutinoside with maximum absorption at 513 nm at pH 1. The color of anthocyanin extract varied with changes in pH; it turned red in acid and faded in neutral solutions. The green color in the alkaline solution changes to brownish-yellow was associated with anthocyanin degradation. The color change at different pH indicates that banana bracts are regarded as a potential chemosensory compound to detect tuna freshness. The chemosensor was applied to a cellulose-based strip and exhibited a color change that corresponded to the increase in pH and was comparable to the results of the pH meter measurement. The structural changes of anthocyanin before and after the tuna freshness test were identified by the FTIR-ATR, indicating a change in the anthocyanin structure. Tuna freshness began to diminish after being stored for 12 and 24 hours at room temperature, marked by a color change of the paper strip to colorless and blackish gray.

A narrative review on biogenic amines in fermented fish and meat products

Biogenic amines (BAs) are organic nitrogenous compounds, formed mostly by decarboxylation of corresponding amino acids. BAs are responsible for several biological events. However, if the concentration of BAs reached the threshold level, it causes mild to serious health problems in human. The objective of this manuscript was to summarize the prevalence and prevention of Bas formation, detection methods and factors affecting the BAs formation in fermented fish and meat products. Meat sausages are the fermented meat product that contains high BAs. Fish sauces are reported to have high BAs compared to other fish products. Several chemosensors and chromatography methods are available to screen and detect BAs in foods. The prevention measures are vital to avoid toxic outbreaks. The use of starter culture, application of physical factors, control of environmental factors, and use of polyphenols could prevent or diminish the formation of BAs in fermented foods. The literature survey warrants that the development of potent starter with desirable characters, maintenance of hygienic food production and regular monitoring of commercial products are necessary to ensure the quality and safety of fermented fish and meat product.

Recent Developments in Seafood Packaging Technologies

Seafood products are highly perishable, owing to their high water activity, close to neutral pH, and high content of unsaturated lipids and non-protein nitrogenous compounds. Thus, such products require immediate processing and/or packaging to retain their safety and quality. At the same time, consumers prefer fresh, minimally processed seafood products that maintain their initial quality properties. The present article aims to review the literature over the past decade on: (i) innovative, individual packaging technologies applied to extend the shelf life of fish and fishery products, (ii) the most common combinations of the above technologies applied as multiple hurdles to maximize the shelf life of seafood products, and (iii) the respective food packaging legislation. Packaging technologies covered include: Modified atmosphere packaging; vacuum packaging; vacuum skin packaging; active food packaging, including oxygen scavengers; carbon dioxide emitters; moisture regulators; antioxidant and antimicrobial packaging; intelligent packaging, including freshness indicators; time–temperature indicators and leakage indicators; retort pouch processing and edible films; coatings/biodegradable packaging, used individually or in combination for maximum preservation potential.

Ultrasound-assisted dispersive solid-phase extraction combined with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array detection for the determination of nine biogenic amines in canned seafood

This work describes an ultrasound-assisted dispersive solid-phase extraction method combined with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array detection (UADSPE-RPLC-PDA) for the determination of nine common biogenic amines (BAs) in canned seafood. The pretreatment extraction solvent, ultrasonic treatment duration, and derivatization conditions were optimized. The method was validated on the basis of the limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), precision, and accuracy and successfully applied to analyze four canned fish, two canned shrimp and four canned shellfish samples. LODs of 0.08-0.25 mg kg^-1 were achieved, and the correlation coefficient of determination was 0.9994-0.9997. The method had high precision and accuracy, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) and recoveries of 0.44 to 6.83% and 72.57 to 99.74%, respectively, suggesting the effectiveness of ultrasound-assisted extraction at increasing the solubility of the target analytes in the solvent system and the feasibility of UADSPE-RPLC-PDA for determining trace BAs in canned seafood.

Effects of Amino Acid Decarboxylase Genes and pH on the Amine Formation of Enteric Bacteria From Chinese Traditional Fermented Fish (Suan Yu)

The formation of biogenic amines (BAs) is an important potential risk in Suan yu. This study investigated the amine production abilities of 97 strains of enteric bacteria screened from Suan yu. The genotypic diversity of amino acid decarboxylase and the effect of pH were explored on 27 strains of high-yield BAs. Results showed that high levels of putrescine, histamine, and cadaverine were produced by the 97 strains. In addition, 27 strains carried odc, speA, speB, adiA, and ldc genes. Thirteen carried hdc gene. Morganella morganii 42C2 produced the highest putrescine content of 880 mg/L via the ornithine decarboxylase pathway. The highest histamine content was produced by Klebsiella aerogenes 13C2 (1,869 mg/L). The highest cadaverine content was shown by Klebsiella pneumoniae 47C2 (1,821 mg/L). odc, adiA, speB, ldc, and hdc play important roles in the cellular acid stress response. Acid stress caused the growth delay but can increase the contents of putrescine, histamine, and cadaverine. Decarboxylase was strain specific rather than species specific. This study provides a reference for the genotypic diversity of decarboxylase and effect of pH on the types and abilities of BAs produced by enteric bacteria in Suan yu.