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Ye Y, Cheng H, Wang Y, Sun Y, Zhang LD, Tang J. Macrophage: A key player in neuropathic pain. Int Rev Immunol 2024:1-14. [PMID: 38661566 DOI: 10.1080/08830185.2024.2344170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Research on the relationship between macrophages and neuropathic pain has flourished in the past two decades. It has long been believed that macrophages are strong immune effector cells that play well-established roles in tissue homeostasis and lesions, such as promoting the initiation and progression of tissue injury and improving wound healing and tissue remodeling in a variety of pathogenesis-related diseases. They are also heterogeneous and versatile cells that can switch phenotypically/functionally in response to the micro-environment signals. Apart from microglia (resident macrophages of both the spinal cord and brain), which are required for the neuropathic pain processing of the CNS, neuropathic pain signals in PNS are influenced by the interaction of tissue-resident macrophages and BM infiltrating macrophages with primary afferent neurons. And the current review looks at new evidence that suggests sexual dimorphism in neuropathic pain are caused by variations in the immune system, notably macrophages, rather than the neurological system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Ye
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jinling Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, PR China
| | - Hao Cheng
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jinling Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, PR China
| | - Yan Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jinling Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, PR China
| | - Yan Sun
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jinling Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, PR China
| | - Li-Dong Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jinling Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, PR China
| | - Jun Tang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jinling Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, PR China
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2
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Bak MS, Park H, Yoon H, Chung G, Shin H, Shin S, Kim TW, Lee K, Nägerl UV, Kim SJ, Kim SK. Machine learning-based evaluation of spontaneous pain and analgesics from cellular calcium signals in the mouse primary somatosensory cortex using explainable features. Front Mol Neurosci 2024; 17:1356453. [PMID: 38450042 PMCID: PMC10915002 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2024.1356453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Pain that arises spontaneously is considered more clinically relevant than pain evoked by external stimuli. However, measuring spontaneous pain in animal models in preclinical studies is challenging due to methodological limitations. To address this issue, recently we developed a deep learning (DL) model to assess spontaneous pain using cellular calcium signals of the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) in awake head-fixed mice. However, DL operate like a "black box", where their decision-making process is not transparent and is difficult to understand, which is especially evident when our DL model classifies different states of pain based on cellular calcium signals. In this study, we introduce a novel machine learning (ML) model that utilizes features that were manually extracted from S1 calcium signals, including the dynamic changes in calcium levels and the cell-to-cell activity correlations. Method We focused on observing neural activity patterns in the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) of mice using two-photon calcium imaging after injecting a calcium indicator (GCaMP6s) into the S1 cortex neurons. We extracted features related to the ratio of up and down-regulated cells in calcium activity and the correlation level of activity between cells as input data for the ML model. The ML model was validated using a Leave-One-Subject-Out Cross-Validation approach to distinguish between non-pain, pain, and drug-induced analgesic states. Results and discussion The ML model was designed to classify data into three distinct categories: non-pain, pain, and drug-induced analgesic states. Its versatility was demonstrated by successfully classifying different states across various pain models, including inflammatory and neuropathic pain, as well as confirming its utility in identifying the analgesic effects of drugs like ketoprofen, morphine, and the efficacy of magnolin, a candidate analgesic compound. In conclusion, our ML model surpasses the limitations of previous DL approaches by leveraging manually extracted features. This not only clarifies the decision-making process of the ML model but also yields insights into neuronal activity patterns associated with pain, facilitating preclinical studies of analgesics with higher potential for clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myeong Seong Bak
- Department of Science in Korean Medicine, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Division of AI and Data Analysis, Neurogrin Inc., Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Haney Park
- Department of Science in Korean Medicine, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Division of Preclinical R&D, Neurogrin Inc., Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Heera Yoon
- Department of Science in Korean Medicine, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Division of Preclinical R&D, Neurogrin Inc., Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Geehoon Chung
- Department of Physiology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunjin Shin
- Department of Science in Korean Medicine, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Soonho Shin
- Department of Physiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Tai Wan Kim
- Department of Korean Medicine, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyungjoon Lee
- Department of East-West Medicine, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - U. Valentin Nägerl
- Interdisciplinary Institute for Neuroscience, CNRS UMR 5297 and University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Sang Jeong Kim
- Department of Physiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sun Kwang Kim
- Department of Science in Korean Medicine, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Physiology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of East-West Medicine, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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3
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Zhen W, Zhen H, Wang Y, Chen L, Niu X, Zhang B, Yang Z, Peng D. Mechanism of ERK/CREB pathway in pain and analgesia. Front Mol Neurosci 2023; 16:1156674. [PMID: 37008781 PMCID: PMC10060514 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2023.1156674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Research has long centered on the pathophysiology of pain. The Transient Receiver Potential (TRP) protein family is well known for its function in the pathophysiology of pain, and extensive study has been done in this area. One of the significant mechanisms of pain etiology and analgesia that lacks a systematic synthesis and review is the ERK/CREB (Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase/CAMP Response Element Binding Protein) pathway. The ERK/CREB pathway-targeting analgesics may also cause a variety of adverse effects that call for specialized medical care. In this review, we systematically compiled the mechanism of the ERK/CREB pathway in the process of pain and analgesia, as well as the potential adverse effects on the nervous system brought on by the inhibition of the ERK/CREB pathway in analgesic drugs, and we suggested the corresponding solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weizhe Zhen
- Graduate School, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
- Department of Neurology, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Hongjun Zhen
- Department of Orthopaedics, Handan Chinese Medicine Hospital, Handan, Hebei Province, China
| | - Yuye Wang
- Department of Neurology, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
- Graduate School, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Leian Chen
- Department of Neurology, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
- Graduate School, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoqian Niu
- Department of Neurology, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
- Graduate School, Peking University China-Japan Friendship School of Clinical Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Bin Zhang
- Department of Neurology, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
- Graduate School, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Ziyuan Yang
- Department of Neurology, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
- Graduate School, Peking University China-Japan Friendship School of Clinical Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Dantao Peng
- Graduate School, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
- Department of Neurology, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Dantao Peng,
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Hu Y, Zhou H, Zhang H, Sui Y, Zhang Z, Zou Y, Li K, Zhao Y, Xie J, Zhang L. The neuroprotective effect of dexmedetomidine and its mechanism. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:965661. [PMID: 36204225 PMCID: PMC9531148 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.965661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Dexmedetomidine (DEX) is a highly selective α2 receptor agonist that is routinely used in the clinic for sedation and anesthesia. Recently, an increasing number of studies have shown that DEX has a protective effect against brain injury caused by traumatic brain injury (TBI), subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), cerebral ischemia and ischemia–reperfusion (I/R), suggesting its potential as a neuroprotective agent. Here, we summarized the neuroprotective effects of DEX in several models of neurological damage and examined its mechanism based on the current literature. Ultimately, we found that the neuroprotective effect of DEX mainly involved inhibition of inflammatory reactions, reduction of apoptosis and autophagy, and protection of the blood–brain barrier and enhancement of stable cell structures in five way. Therefore, DEX can provide a crucial advantage in neurological recovery for patients with brain injury. The purpose of this study was to further clarify the neuroprotective mechanisms of DEX therefore suggesting its potential in the clinical management of the neurological injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yijun Hu
- Neurology Department, Weifang Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang, China
- Graduate School, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Hong Zhou
- Neurology Department, Weifang Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang, China
| | - Huanxin Zhang
- Neurology Department, Weifang Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang, China
| | - Yunlong Sui
- Neurology Department, Weifang Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang, China
| | - Zhen Zhang
- Neurology Department, Weifang Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang, China
| | - Yuntao Zou
- Neurology Department, Weifang Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang, China
| | - Kunquan Li
- Neurology Department, Weifang Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang, China
| | - Yunyi Zhao
- Neurology Department, Weifang Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang, China
| | - Jiangbo Xie
- Neurology Department, Weifang Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang, China
| | - Lunzhong Zhang
- Neurology Department, Weifang Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang, China
- *Correspondence: Lunzhong Zhang,
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5
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The BDNF-TrkB signaling pathway in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex is involved in the development of pain aversion in rats with bone cancer via NR2B and ERK-CREB signaling. Brain Res Bull 2022; 185:18-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Cellular Effects of Rhynchophylline and Relevance to Sleep Regulation. Clocks Sleep 2021; 3:312-341. [PMID: 34207633 PMCID: PMC8293156 DOI: 10.3390/clockssleep3020020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Uncaria rhynchophylla is a plant highly used in the traditional Chinese and Japanese medicines. It has numerous health benefits, which are often attributed to its alkaloid components. Recent studies in humans show that drugs containing Uncaria ameliorate sleep quality and increase sleep time, both in physiological and pathological conditions. Rhynchophylline (Rhy) is one of the principal alkaloids in Uncaria species. Although treatment with Rhy alone has not been tested in humans, observations in rodents show that Rhy increases sleep time. However, the mechanisms by which Rhy could modulate sleep have not been comprehensively described. In this review, we are highlighting cellular pathways that are shown to be targeted by Rhy and which are also known for their implications in the regulation of wakefulness and sleep. We conclude that Rhy can impact sleep through mechanisms involving ion channels, N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, tyrosine kinase receptors, extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK)/mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/RAC serine/threonine-protein kinase (AKT), and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathways. In modulating multiple cellular responses, Rhy impacts neuronal communication in a way that could have substantial effects on sleep phenotypes. Thus, understanding the mechanisms of action of Rhy will have implications for sleep pharmacology.
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7
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Liu S, Liu C, Xiong L, Xie J, Huang C, Pi R, Huang Z, Li L. Icaritin Alleviates Glutamate-Induced Neuronal Damage by Inactivating GluN2B-Containing NMDARs Through the ERK/DAPK1 Pathway. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:525615. [PMID: 33692666 PMCID: PMC7937872 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.525615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Excitatory toxicity due to excessive glutamate release is considered the core pathophysiological mechanism of cerebral ischemia. It is primarily mediated by N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) on neuronal membranes. Our previous studies have found that icaritin (ICT) exhibits neuroprotective effects against cerebral ischemia in rats, but the underlying mechanism is unclear. This study aims to investigate the protective effect of ICT on glutamate-induced neuronal injury and uncover its possible molecular mechanism. An excitatory toxicity injury model was created using rat primary cortical neurons treated with glutamate and glycine. The results showed that ICT has neuroprotective effects on glutamate-treated primary cortical neurons by increasing cell viability while reducing the rate of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release and reducing apoptosis. Remarkably, ICT rescued the changes in the ERK/DAPK1 signaling pathway after glutamate treatment by increasing the expression levels of p-ERK, p-DAPK1 and t-DAPK1. In addition, ICT also regulates NMDAR function during glutamate-induced injury by decreasing the expression level of the GluN2B subunit and enhancing the expression level of the GluN2A subunit. As cotreatment with the ERK-specific inhibitor U0126 and ICT abolishes the beneficial effects of ITC on the ERK/DAPK1 pathway, NMDAR subtypes and neuronal cell survival, ERK is recognized as a crucial mediator in the protective mechanism of ICT. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that ICT has a neuroprotective effect on neuronal damage induced by glutamate, and its mechanism may be related to inactivating GluN2B-containing NMDAR through the ERK/DAPK1 pathway. This study provides a new clue for the prevention and treatment of clinical ischemic cerebrovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song Liu
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases of Ministry of Education, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Chaoming Liu
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases of Ministry of Education, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Lijiao Xiong
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases of Ministry of Education, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China.,First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Jiali Xie
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases of Ministry of Education, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Cheng Huang
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases of Ministry of Education, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China.,Institute for Medical Sciences of Pain, Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Rongbiao Pi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhihua Huang
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases of Ministry of Education, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China.,Institute for Medical Sciences of Pain, Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Liangdong Li
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases of Ministry of Education, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China.,First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
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8
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Li Q, Ma TL, Qiu YQ, Cui WQ, Chen T, Zhang WW, Wang J, Mao-Ying QL, Mi WL, Wang YQ, Chu YX. Connexin 36 Mediates Orofacial Pain Hypersensitivity Through GluK2 and TRPA1. Neurosci Bull 2020; 36:1484-1499. [PMID: 33067780 PMCID: PMC7719140 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-020-00594-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Trigeminal neuralgia is a debilitating condition, and the pain easily spreads to other parts of the face. Here, we established a mouse model of partial transection of the infraorbital nerve (pT-ION) and found that the Connexin 36 (Cx36) inhibitor mefloquine caused greater alleviation of pT-ION-induced cold allodynia compared to the reduction of mechanical allodynia. Mefloquine reversed the pT-ION-induced upregulation of Cx36, glutamate receptor ionotropic kainate 2 (GluK2), transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 (TRPA1), and phosphorylated extracellular signal regulated kinase (p-ERK) in the trigeminal ganglion. Cold allodynia but not mechanical allodynia induced by pT-ION or by virus-mediated overexpression of Cx36 in the trigeminal ganglion was reversed by the GluK2 antagonist NS102, and knocking down Cx36 expression in Nav1.8-expressing nociceptors by injecting virus into the orofacial skin area of Nav1.8-Cre mice attenuated cold allodynia but not mechanical allodynia. In conclusion, we show that Cx36 contributes greatly to the development of orofacial pain hypersensitivity through GluK2, TRPA1, and p-ERK signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Li
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Brain Science Collaborative Innovation Center, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Tian-Le Ma
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Brain Science Collaborative Innovation Center, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - You-Qi Qiu
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Brain Science Collaborative Innovation Center, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Wen-Qiang Cui
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Brain Science Collaborative Innovation Center, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
- Department of Pain Management, Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, The First Hospital Affiliated with Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, 250000, China
| | - Teng Chen
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Brain Science Collaborative Innovation Center, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Wen-Wen Zhang
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Brain Science Collaborative Innovation Center, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Department of Nephropathy, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Luohu Hospital Group, Shenzhen, 518001, China
| | - Qi-Liang Mao-Ying
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Brain Science Collaborative Innovation Center, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Wen-Li Mi
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Brain Science Collaborative Innovation Center, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Yan-Qing Wang
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Brain Science Collaborative Innovation Center, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Yu-Xia Chu
- Department of Integrative Medicine and Neurobiology, Institutes of Integrative Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Institutes of Brain Science, Brain Science Collaborative Innovation Center, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China.
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9
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Qin J, Li A, Huang Y, Teng RH, Yang Y, Yao YX. CXCR3 contributes to neuropathic pain via ERK activation in the anterior cingulate cortex. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2020; 531:166-171. [PMID: 32782146 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.07.104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is activated by noxious stimuli and is involved in the affective component of pain processing; but its role in the sensory component of pain remains largely unknown. Studies have verified that Chemokine (C-X-C motif) receptor 3 (CXCR3) is involved in nociceptive sensitization in the spinal cord after peripheral nerve injury; however, the expression of CXCR3 in the ACC and its role in neuropathic pain has not been reported. Here, we showed that CXCR3 co-localized with neurons in the ACC and the upregulation of CXCR3 corresponded with hypersensitive behaviors after a chronic constriction injury of the sciatic nerve. Pharmacological blockade of CXCR3 using local injection of its inhibitor, AMG487, into the ACC significantly attenuated hyperalgesia induced by chronic constriction injury and suppressed the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). Collectively, these results suggest that CXCR3 in the ACC is involved in hyperalgesia induced by peripheral nerve injury and ERK may be a downstream target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Qin
- Department of Anesthesia, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China; Department of Anesthesia, Tinglin Hospital of Jinshan District, Shanghai, PR China.
| | - Ang Li
- Department of Anesthesia, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China.
| | - Yan Huang
- Department of Anesthesia, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China; Department of Anesthesia, the Central Hospital of Lishui City, Lishui, PR China.
| | - Run-Hua Teng
- Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, PR China.
| | - Yan Yang
- Centre for Neuroscience, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China.
| | - Yong-Xing Yao
- Department of Anesthesia, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China.
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ML171, a specific inhibitor of NOX1 attenuates formalin induced nociceptive sensitization by inhibition of ROS mediated ERK1/2 signaling. Neurochem Int 2019; 129:104466. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2019.104466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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11
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Teng L, Chen W, Yin C, Zhang H, Zhao Q. Dexmedetomidine Improves Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in Rats via Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase/Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate Response Element Binding Protein Signaling Pathway. World Neurosurg 2019; 127:e624-e630. [DOI: 10.1016/j.wneu.2019.03.232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2019] [Revised: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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12
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Alotaibi G, Rahman S. Effects of glial glutamate transporter activator in formalin‐induced pain behaviour in mice. Eur J Pain 2018. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ejp.1343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ghallab Alotaibi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy South Dakota State University Brookings South Dakota
| | - Shafiqur Rahman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy South Dakota State University Brookings South Dakota
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13
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Alotaibi G, Rahman S. Effects of glial glutamate transporter activator in formalin-induced pain behaviour in mice. Eur J Pain 2018; 23:765-783. [PMID: 30427564 DOI: 10.1002/ejp.1343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Revised: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nociceptive pain remains a prevalent clinical problem and often poorly responsive to the currently available analgesics. Previous studies have shown that astroglial glutamate transporter-1 (GLT-1) in the hippocampus and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is critically involved in pain processing and modulation. However, the role of astroglial GLT-1 in nociceptive pain involving the hippocampus and ACC remains unknown. We investigated the role of 3-[[(2-Methylphenyl) methyl]thio]-6-(2-pyridinyl)-pyridazine (LDN-212320), a GLT-1 activator, in nociceptive pain model and hippocampal-dependent behavioural tasks in mice. METHODS We evaluated the effects of LDN-212320 in formalin-induced nociceptive pain model. In addition, formalin-induced impaired hippocampal-dependent behaviours were measured using Y-maze and object recognition test. Furthermore, GLT-1 expression and extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation (pERK1/2) were measured in the hippocampus and ACC using Western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS The LDN-212320 (10 or 20 mg/kg, i.p) significantly attenuated formalin-evoked nociceptive behaviour. The antinociceptive effects of LDN-212320 were reversed by systemic administration of DHK (10 mg/kg, i.p), a GLT-1 antagonist. Moreover, LDN-212320 (10 or 20 mg/kg, i.p) significantly reversed formalin-induced impaired hippocampal-dependent behaviour. In addition, LDN-212320 (10 or 20 mg/kg, i.p) increased GLT-1 expressions in the hippocampus and ACC. On the other hand, LDN-212320 (20 mg/kg, i.p) significantly reduced formalin induced-ERK phosphorylation, a marker of nociception, in the hippocampus and ACC. CONCLUSION These results suggest that the GLT-1 activator LDN-212320 prevents nociceptive pain by upregulating astroglial GLT-1 expression in the hippocampus and ACC. Therefore, GLT-1 activator could be a novel drug candidate for nociceptive pain. SIGNIFICANCE The present study provides new insights and evaluates the role of GLT-1 activator in the modulation of nociceptive pain involving hippocampus and ACC. Here, we provide evidence that GLT-1 activator could be a potential therapeutic utility for the treatment of nociceptive pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghallab Alotaibi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota
| | - Shafiqur Rahman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota
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14
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Sun Y, Xu Y, Cheng X, Chen X, Xie Y, Zhang L, Wang L, Hu J, Gao Z. The differences between GluN2A and GluN2B signaling in the brain. J Neurosci Res 2018; 96:1430-1443. [PMID: 29682799 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2017] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, a typical ionotropic glutamate receptor, is a crucial protein for maintaining brain function. GluN2A and GluN2B are the main types of NMDA receptor subunit in the adult forebrain. Studies have demonstrated that they play different roles in a number of pathophysiological processes. Although the underlying mechanism for this has not been clarified, the most fundamental reason may be the differences between the signaling pathways associated with GluN2A and GluN2B. With the aim of elucidating the reasons behind the diverse roles of these two subunits, we described the signaling differences between GluN2A and GluN2B from the aspects of C-terminus-associated molecules, effects on typical downstream signaling proteins, and metabotropic signaling. Because there are several factors interfering with the determination of subunit-specific signaling, there is still a long way to go toward clarifying the signaling differences between these two subunits. Developing better pharmacology tools, such as highly selective antagonists for triheteromeric GluN2A- and GluN2B-containing NMDA receptors, and establishing new molecular biological methods, for example, engineering photoswitchable NMDA receptors, may be useful for clarifying the signaling differences between GluN2A and GluN2B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongjun Sun
- Department of Pharmacy, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang, People's Republic of China.,Hebei Research Center of Pharmaceutical and Chemical Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang, People's Republic of China
| | - Yingge Xu
- Department of Pharmacy, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaokun Cheng
- Department of Physical and Chemical Analysis, North China Pharmaceutical Group New Drug Research and Development Co., Ltd, Shijiazhuang, People's Republic of China
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang, People's Republic of China
| | - Yinghua Xie
- Department of Pharmacy, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang, People's Republic of China.,Hebei Research Center of Pharmaceutical and Chemical Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang, People's Republic of China
| | - Linan Zhang
- Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Science, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, People's Republic of China
| | - Long Wang
- Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, California State University, Long Beach, California
| | - Jie Hu
- Nursing Research Center, School of Nursing, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, People's Republic of China
| | - Zibin Gao
- Department of Pharmacy, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang, People's Republic of China.,Hebei Research Center of Pharmaceutical and Chemical Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang, People's Republic of China.,State Key Laboratory Breeding Base, Hebei Province Key Laboratory of Molecular Chemistry for Drug, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang, People's Republic of China
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15
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Inhibition of the cAMP/PKA/CREB Pathway Contributes to the Analgesic Effects of Electroacupuncture in the Anterior Cingulate Cortex in a Rat Pain Memory Model. Neural Plast 2016; 2016:5320641. [PMID: 28090359 PMCID: PMC5206448 DOI: 10.1155/2016/5320641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Revised: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Pain memory is considered as endopathic factor underlying stubborn chronic pain. Our previous study demonstrated that electroacupuncture (EA) can alleviate retrieval of pain memory. This study was designed to observe the different effects between EA and indomethacin (a kind of nonsteroid anti-inflammatory drugs, NSAIDs) in a rat pain memory model. To explore the critical role of protein kinase A (PKA) in pain memory, a PKA inhibitor was microinjected into anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in model rats. We further investigated the roles of the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), PKA, cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), and cAMP/PKA/CREB pathway in pain memory to explore the potential molecular mechanism. The results showed that EA alleviates the retrieval of pain memory while indomethacin failed. Intra-ACC microinjection of a PKA inhibitor blocked the occurrence of pain memory. EA reduced the activation of cAMP, PKA, and CREB and the coexpression levels of cAMP/PKA and PKA/CREB in the ACC of pain memory model rats, but indomethacin failed. The present findings identified a critical role of PKA in ACC in retrieval of pain memory. We propose that the proper mechanism of EA on pain memory is possibly due to the partial inhibition of cAMP/PKA/CREB signaling pathway by EA.
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16
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Insular Cortex is Critical for the Perception, Modulation, and Chronification of Pain. Neurosci Bull 2016; 32:191-201. [PMID: 26898298 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-016-0016-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
An increasing body of neuroimaging and electrophysiological studies of the brain suggest that the insular cortex (IC) integrates multimodal salient information ranging from sensation to cognitive-affective events to create conscious interoception. Especially with regard to pain experience, the IC has been supposed to participate in both sensory-discriminative and affective-motivational aspects of pain. In this review, we discuss the latest data proposing that subregions of the IC are involved in isolated pain networks: the posterior sensory circuit and the anterior emotional network. Due to abundant connections with other brain areas, the IC is likely to serve as an interface where cross-modal shaping of pain occurs. In chronic pain, however, this mode of emotional awareness and the modulation of pain are disrupted. We highlight some of the molecular mechanisms underlying the changes of the pain modulation system that contribute to the transition from acute to chronic pain in the IC.
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17
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Differential effects of general anesthetics on anxiety-like behavior in formalin-induced pain: involvement of ERK activation in the anterior cingulate cortex. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2015; 232:4433-44. [PMID: 26400403 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-015-4071-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2015] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Pain-related anxiety and depression are well known to be comorbid with chronic pain and adversely affect patient quality of life. Recent studies have shown that anxiety-like behaviors also develop with acute surgical pain, but the effects of general anesthetics on acute pain-related anxiety are unknown. OBJECTIVE The present study aimed to compare the effects of different general anesthetics on anxiety-like behaviors that follow formalin-induced acute pain in a rat model. METHODS Formalin-induced acute inflammatory pain was established by intraplantar injection of 1% formalin without anesthesia or with anesthesia using the clinical anesthetics sevoflurane, propofol, or pentobarbital sodium. Anxiety-like behaviors were studied using the open-field test and elevated plus maze. Phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (p-ERK) 1/2 expression in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and spinal cord was examined using immunohistochemistry. RESULTS Anxiety-like behaviors were observed at 24 and 72 h post-formalin injection. Concomitantly, p-ERK 1/2 expression was upregulated in the ACC at 1 and 24 h post-formalin injection. While all three general anesthetics effectively blocked nociceptive responses and activation of ERK in the rat ACC following formalin injection during anesthesia, only sevoflurane inhibited ERK activation in the spinal cord and ACC at 24 h post-injection. CONCLUSIONS This study suggests that sevoflurane, but not intravenous anesthetics, inhibits pain-related anxiety, along with ERK activation in the ACC, probably through inhibition of spinal nociceptive transmission. Intraoperative application of inhaled anesthetics may be a better choice to reduce postoperative anxiety.
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18
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Navarria L, Zaltieri M, Longhena F, Spillantini MG, Missale C, Spano P, Bellucci A. Alpha-synuclein modulates NR2B-containing NMDA receptors and decreases their levels after rotenone exposure. Neurochem Int 2015; 85-86:14-23. [PMID: 25846226 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2015.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Revised: 02/13/2015] [Accepted: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Alpha-synuclein (α-syn) is the main protein component of Lewy bodies (LBs), that together with nigrostriatal dopamine neuron loss constitute typical pathological hallmarks of Parkinson's disease (PD). Glutamate N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) abnormalities, peculiarly involving NR2B-containing NMDAR, have been observed in the brain of PD patients and in several experimental models of the disease. Recent findings, indicating that α-syn can modulate NMDAR trafficking and function, suggest that this protein may be a pivotal regulator of NMDAR activity. Prompted by these evidences, we used fluorescence immunocytochemistry, western blotting and ratiometric Ca(2+) measurements to investigate whether wild type (wt) or C-terminally truncated α-syn can specifically modulate NR2B-containing NMDAR levels, subcellular trafficking and function. In addition, we evaluated whether the exposure of primary cortical neurons to increasing concentrations of rotenone could differentially regulate NR2B levels and cell viability in the presence or in the absence of α-syn. Our results indicate that both wt and C-terminally truncated α-syn negatively modulate NR2B-containing NMDAR levels, membrane translocation and function. Moreover, we found that absence of α-syn abolishes the rotenone-dependent decrease of NR2B levels and reduces neuronal vulnerability in primary cortical neurons. These findings suggest that α-syn can modulate neuronal resilience by regulating NR2B-containing NMDAR, whose specific alterations could connect α-syn pathology to neuronal degeneration in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Navarria
- Department of Molecular and Translation Medicine, University of Brescia, Italy
| | - Michela Zaltieri
- Department of Molecular and Translation Medicine, University of Brescia, Italy
| | - Francesca Longhena
- Department of Molecular and Translation Medicine, University of Brescia, Italy
| | - Maria Grazia Spillantini
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, The Clifford Allbutt Building, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Cristina Missale
- Department of Molecular and Translation Medicine, University of Brescia, Italy
| | - PierFranco Spano
- Department of Molecular and Translation Medicine, University of Brescia, Italy; IRCCS San Camillo, Venice, Italy
| | - Arianna Bellucci
- Department of Molecular and Translation Medicine, University of Brescia, Italy.
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19
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Wang XQ, Zhong XL, Li ZB, Wang HT, Zhang J, Li F, Zhang JY, Dai RP, Xin-Fu Z, Li CQ, Li ZY, Bi FF. Differential roles of hippocampal glutamatergic receptors in neuropathic anxiety-like behavior after partial sciatic nerve ligation in rats. BMC Neurosci 2015; 16:14. [PMID: 25884414 PMCID: PMC4372276 DOI: 10.1186/s12868-015-0150-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neuropathic pain evoked by nerve injury is frequently accompanied by deterioration of emotional behaviors, but the underlying signaling mechanisms remain elusive. Glutamate (Glu) is the major mediator of excitatory synaptic transmission throughout the brain, and abnormal activity of the glutamatergic system has been implicated in the pathophysiology of pain and associated emotional comorbidities. In this study we used the partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSNL) model of neuropathic pain in rats to characterize the development of anxiety-like behavior, the expression of glutamatergic receptors, and the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) in the hippocampus, the region that encodes memories related to emotions. RESULTS We found that the mechanical withdrawal threshold was significantly reduced and an anxiety-like behavior was increased as determined via open field tests and elevated plus-maze tests at 28 days after injury. No significant differences were found in the ratio of sucrose preference and immobility time detected by sucrose preference tests and forced swimming tests respectively, possibly due to the timing factor. The expression of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor subtypes NR1 and NR2B, but not NR2A, GluR1, or GluR2 (the main subtype of the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid [AMPA] receptor) in the hippocampus of injured rats was significantly reduced. Moreover, PSNL resulted in decreased phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in the hippocampus. Intriguingly, treatment with D-serine (a co-agonist of NMDA receptor, 1 g/kg intraperitoneally) reduced the anxiety-like behavior but not the mechanical hypersensitivity induced by PSNL. CONCLUSIONS PSNL can induce significant anxiety-like but not depression-like behavior, and trigger down-regulation of NMDA but not AMPA receptors in the hippocampus at 28 days after injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Qin Wang
- Center for Experimental Medicine, the Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Tongzipo Road 138, Changsha, Hunan, China. .,Department of Anesthesiology, the Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Tongzipo Road 138, Changsha, Hunan, China. .,Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Tongzipo Road 172, Changsha, Hunan, China.
| | - Xiao-Lin Zhong
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Tongzipo Road 172, Changsha, Hunan, China.
| | - Zhi-Bin Li
- Department of Neurology, XiangYa Hospital, Central South University, XiangYa Road 88, Changsha, Hunan, China.
| | - Hong-Tao Wang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Tongzipo Road 172, Changsha, Hunan, China.
| | - Juan Zhang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Tongzipo Road 172, Changsha, Hunan, China.
| | - Fang Li
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Tongzipo Road 172, Changsha, Hunan, China.
| | - Jian-Yi Zhang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Tongzipo Road 172, Changsha, Hunan, China.
| | - Ru-Ping Dai
- Department of Anesthesia, the Second XiangYa Hospital of Central South University, Ren-Min Road 86, Changsha, Hunan, China.
| | - Zhou Xin-Fu
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, Sansom Institute, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, 5000, Australia.
| | - Chang-Qi Li
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Tongzipo Road 172, Changsha, Hunan, China.
| | - Zhi-Yuan Li
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Tongzipo Road 172, Changsha, Hunan, China.
| | - Fang-Fang Bi
- Department of Neurology, XiangYa Hospital, Central South University, XiangYa Road 88, Changsha, Hunan, China.
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20
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Neurotropin® Ameliorates Chronic Pain via Induction of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2014; 35:231-41. [DOI: 10.1007/s10571-014-0118-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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21
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Karpyak VM, Biernacka JM, Geske JR, Jenkins GD, Cunningham JM, Rüegg J, Kononenko O, Leontovich AA, Abulseoud OA, Hall-Flavin DK, Loukianova LL, Schneekloth TD, Skime MK, Frank J, Nöthen MM, Rietschel M, Kiefer F, Mann KF, Weinshilboum RM, Frye MA, Choi DS. Genetic markers associated with abstinence length in alcohol-dependent subjects treated with acamprosate. Transl Psychiatry 2014; 4:e462. [PMID: 25290263 PMCID: PMC4350512 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2014.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 08/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Acamprosate supports abstinence in some alcohol-dependent subjects, yet predictors of response are unknown. To identify response biomarkers, we investigated associations of abstinence length with polymorphisms in candidate genes in glycine and glutamate neurotransmission pathways and genes previously implicated in acamprosate response. Association analyses were conducted in the discovery sample of 225 alcohol-dependent subjects treated with acamprosate for 3 months in community-based treatment programs in the United States. Data from 110 alcohol-dependent males treated with acamprosate in the study PREDICT were used for replication of the top association findings. Statistical models were adjusted for relevant covariates, including recruitment site and baseline clinical variables associated with response. In the discovery sample, shorter abstinence was associated with increased intensity of alcohol craving and lower number of days between the last drink and initiation of acamprosate treatment. After adjustment for covariates, length of abstinence was associated with the GRIN2B rs2058878 (P=4.6 × 10(-5)). In the replication sample, shorter abstinence was associated with increased craving, increased depressive mood score and higher alcohol consumption. Association of abstinence length with GRIN2B rs2058878 was marginally significant (P=0.0675); as in the discovery sample, the minor A allele was associated with longer abstinence. Furthermore, rs2300272, which is in strong linkage disequilibrium with rs2058878, was also associated with abstinence length (P=0.049). This is the first report of a replicated association of genetic markers with the length of abstinence in acamprosate-treated alcoholics. Investigation of the underlying mechanisms of this association and its usefulness for individualized treatment selection should follow.
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Affiliation(s)
- V M Karpyak
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA,Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, 200 First Street South West, Rochester, MN 55905, USA. E-mail:
| | - J M Biernacka
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA,Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - J R Geske
- Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - G D Jenkins
- Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - J M Cunningham
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - J Rüegg
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - O Kononenko
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - A A Leontovich
- Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - O A Abulseoud
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - D K Hall-Flavin
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - L L Loukianova
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - T D Schneekloth
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - M K Skime
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - J Frank
- Department of Genetic Epidemiology in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - M M Nöthen
- Department of Genomics Life and Brain Research Centre, Institute of Human Genetics, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - M Rietschel
- Department of Genetic Epidemiology in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - F Kiefer
- Department of Addictive Behavior and Addiction Medicine, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - K F Mann
- Department of Addictive Behavior and Addiction Medicine, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - R M Weinshilboum
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - M A Frye
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - D S Choi
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA,Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
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22
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Galan-Arriero I, Avila-Martin G, Ferrer-Donato A, Gomez-Soriano J, Bravo-Esteban E, Taylor J. Oral administration of the p38α MAPK inhibitor, UR13870, inhibits affective pain behavior after spinal cord injury. Pain 2014; 155:2188-98. [PMID: 25180015 DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2014.08.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2014] [Revised: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 08/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The p38α mitogenous activated protein kinase (MAPK) cell signaling pathway is a key mechanism of microglia activation and has been studied as a target for neuropathic pain. The effect of UR13870, a p38α MAPK inhibitor, on microglia expression in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and spinal dorsal horn was addressed after T9 contusion spinal cord injury (SCI) in the rat, in addition to behavioral testing of pain-related aversion and anxiety. Administration of intravenous UR13870 (1mg/kg i.v.) and pregabalin (30 mg/kg i.v.) reduced place escape avoidance paradigm (PEAP) but did not affect open-field anxiety behavior 42 days after SCI. PEAP behavior was also reduced in animals administered daily with oral UR13870 (10mg/kg p.o.) and preserved spinal tissue 28 days after SCI. Although UR13870 (10mg/kg p.o.) failed to reduce OX-42 and glial fibrillar acid protein immunoreactivity within the spinal dorsal horn, a reduction toward the control level was observed close to the SCI site. In the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), a significant increase in OX-42 immunoreactivity was identified after SCI. UR13870 (10mg/kg p.o.) treatment significantly reduced OX-42, metabotropic glutamate type 5 receptor (mGluR5), and NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartate) 2B subunit receptor (NR2B) expression in the ACC after SCI. To conclude, oral treatment with a p38α MAPK inhibitor reduces the affective behavioral component of pain after SCI in association with a reduction of microglia and specific glutamate receptors within the ACC. Nevertheless the role of neuroinflammatory processes within the vicinity of the SCI site in the development of affective neuropathic pain cannot be excluded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iriana Galan-Arriero
- Sensorimotor Function Group, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, SESCAM, Toledo, Spain
| | - Gerardo Avila-Martin
- Sensorimotor Function Group, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, SESCAM, Toledo, Spain
| | - Agueda Ferrer-Donato
- Sensorimotor Function Group, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, SESCAM, Toledo, Spain
| | - Julio Gomez-Soriano
- Sensorimotor Function Group, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, SESCAM, Toledo, Spain; E.U.E. Fisioterapia de Toledo, Universidad de Castilla la Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| | - Elisabeth Bravo-Esteban
- Sensorimotor Function Group, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, SESCAM, Toledo, Spain; IAI, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Arganda del Rey, Spain
| | - Julian Taylor
- Sensorimotor Function Group, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, SESCAM, Toledo, Spain.
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23
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Yasuda S, Yoshida M, Yamagata H, Iwanaga Y, Suenaga H, Ishikawa K, Nakano M, Okuyama S, Furukawa Y, Furukawa S, Ishikawa T. Imipramine Ameliorates Pain-related Negative Emotion via Induction of Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2014; 34:1199-208. [DOI: 10.1007/s10571-014-0097-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2014] [Accepted: 08/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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24
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Li C, Zhang N, Hu Y, Wang H. NR2B overexpression leads to the enhancement of specific protein phosphorylation in the brain. Brain Res 2014; 1588:127-34. [PMID: 25128602 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2014.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2013] [Revised: 04/11/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
n-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) are highly expressed in the central nervous system (CNS) including the cerebral cortex, and it has been found that they contribute significantly to the processes of learning and memory. Dysfunctions of NMDARs are implicated in many neurological disorders. To further investigate the specific role of the NR2B subunit of NMDARs in brain functions, we have examined differences in gene expression in the cerebral cortex between NR2B transgenic mice and their wild-type littermates using the DNA microarray. Total of 179 differentially expressed genes were identified, including genes involved in ion channel activity and/or neurotransmission, signal transduction, structure/cytoskeleton, transcription, and hormone/growth factor activity. Signal pathway analysis has indicated that multiple pathways were involved in this process, especially the Mitogen-activated protein kinases/Extracellular signal-regulated kinases (MAPK/ERK) pathway. The phosphorylation levels of ERK and cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), and the mRNA levels of CREB target genes (C-Fos and Nr4a1) were significantly upregulated in the cerebral cortices of NR2B transgenic mice compared to their wild-type littermates. Our study suggested that a chronic increase of NMDARs activation by NR2B overexpression in the forebrain may enhance the protein serine/threonine phosphorylation levels of MAPK/ERK-CREB and thereby regulated their signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunxia Li
- Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, MOE and STCSM, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China
| | - Ning Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, MOE and STCSM, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China
| | - Yinghe Hu
- Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, MOE and STCSM, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China; Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Molecular Therapeutics and New Drug Development, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China.
| | - Huimin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics, MOE and STCSM, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China.
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25
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Liu P, Guo WY, Zhao XN, Bai HP, Wang Q, Wang XL, Zhang YZ. Intrathecal baclofen, a GABAB receptor agonist, inhibits the expression of p-CREB and NR2B in the spinal dorsal horn in rats with diabetic neuropathic pain. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2014; 92:655-60. [PMID: 24988216 DOI: 10.1139/cjpp-2013-0463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the effect of baclofen, a γ-aminobutyric acid B (GABAB) receptor agonist, on the expression of p-CREB and NR2B in the spinal dorsal horn of rats with diabetic neuropathic pain (DNP). The DNP rats, which were successfully induced with streptozocin, were distributed among 3 groups that were treated with saline (D1 group), baclofen (D2 group), or CGP55845 + baclofen (D3 group) continuously for 4 days. The rats induced with saline and subsequently treated with saline were used as controls (C group). The times for the paw withdrawal threshold and thermal withdrawal latency of the D1 group were lower than those for the C group, and were significantly increased after baclofen treatment, but not when GABA receptor was pre-blocked with CGP55845 (D3 group). Increased protein expression levels of NR2B and p-CREB and mRNA levels of NR2B were found in the D1 group when compared with the controls. Baclofen treatment significantly suppressed their expression, bringing it close to the levels of controls. However, in the D3 group, the expression of p-CREB and NR2B were still significantly higher than that of the controls. Activation of GABAB receptor by baclofen attenuates diabetic neuropathic pain, which may partly be accomplished via down-regulating the expression of p-CREB and NR2B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, No. 139 Ziqiang Road, Shijiazhuang 050051, Hebei Province, China
| | - Wen-Ya Guo
- Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050051, China
| | - Xiao-Nan Zhao
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, No. 139 Ziqiang Road, Shijiazhuang 050051, Hebei Province, China
| | - Hui-Ping Bai
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, No. 139 Ziqiang Road, Shijiazhuang 050051, Hebei Province, China
| | - Qian Wang
- Department of Library, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050051, China
| | - Xiu-Li Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, No. 139 Ziqiang Road, Shijiazhuang 050051, Hebei Province, China
| | - Ying-Ze Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050051, China
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Extinction of remotely acquired fear depends on an inhibitory NR2B/PKA pathway in the retrosplenial cortex. J Neurosci 2014; 33:19492-8. [PMID: 24336715 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3338-13.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
As memories age, their processing increasingly relies upon cortical rather than hippocampal circuits, but the adaptive significance and mechanisms of this shift are not fully understood. Here we investigated the behavioral features and cortical mechanisms underlying extinction of remotely versus recently acquired context fear in mice. Behaviorally, extinction and reinstatement were similar, but re-extinction of remote fear was significantly faster, suggesting time-dependent engagement of mechanisms specific for processing remote memory. Using pharmacological manipulations of NMDA receptors and associated signaling pathways in the in the retrosplenial cortex, we demonstrated that extinction of remote fear uniquely required NR2B-mediated downregulation of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA)/cAMP response element-binding protein pathway. Interestingly, NR2B/PKA interactions weakened independently of the age of the memory, but the functional significance of this molecular change was evident only as memory retrieval became PKA-dependent over time. Thus, cortical PKA signaling may provide a molecular signature of when a memory has become "remote," and inhibition of this pathway may open the door for modulation of remote memories.
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Edelmayer RM, Brederson JD, Jarvis MF, Bitner RS. Biochemical and pharmacological assessment of MAP-kinase signaling along pain pathways in experimental rodent models: a potential tool for the discovery of novel antinociceptive therapeutics. Biochem Pharmacol 2014; 87:390-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2013.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2013] [Revised: 11/19/2013] [Accepted: 11/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Han M, Xiao X, Yang Y, Huang RY, Cao H, Zhao ZQ, Zhang YQ. SIP30 is required for neuropathic pain-evoked aversion in rats. J Neurosci 2014; 34:346-55. [PMID: 24403136 PMCID: PMC6608160 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3160-13.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2013] [Revised: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 11/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
SIP30 (SNAP25 interacting protein of 30) is a SNAP25 interaction protein of 30 kDa that functions in neurotransmitter release. Using a chronic constriction injury (CCI) model of neuropathic pain, we profiled gene expression in the rat spinal cord and brain and identified sip30, which was upregulated after CCI. Here, we show that CCI induced a bilateral increase of SIP30 in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC), a key brain region that has been implicated in pain affect. We put rats in a chamber with one half painted white (light area) and the other half painted black (dark area), and measured neuropathic pain-evoked place escape/avoidance paradigm (PEAP) to quantify the level of negative emotion evoked by painful stimuli using a Von Frey hair. Inhibition of CCI-mediated induction of SIP30 by intra-rACC injection of shRNA targeting the rat sip30 gene reduced PEAP. Interestingly, knockdown of SIP30 did not affect CCI-induced evoked pain such as heat hyperalgesia and mechanical allodynia. Neither did it affect general learning and memory. CCI-induced upregulation of SIP30 was correlated with activation of ERK, PKA, and CREB in the rACC. Intra-rACC administration of PKA or ERK inhibitors suppressed CCI-induced SIP30 upregulation and blocked the induction of PEAP. Additionally, knockdown of SIP30 suppressed the frequency of mEPSCs and increased paired-pulse ratios in rACC slices and decreased extracellular glutamate concentrations. Together, our results highlight SIP30 as a target of PKA and ERK in the rACC to mediate neuropathic pain-evoked negative emotion via modulation of glutamate release and excitatory synaptic transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Han
- Institute of Neurobiology, Institutes of Brain Science and State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China, and
| | - Xiao Xiao
- Institute of Neurobiology, Institutes of Brain Science and State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China, and
| | - Yan Yang
- Institute of Neurobiology, Institutes of Brain Science and State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China, and
| | - Ru-Yi Huang
- Department of Life Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Hong Cao
- Institute of Neurobiology, Institutes of Brain Science and State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China, and
| | - Zhi-Qi Zhao
- Institute of Neurobiology, Institutes of Brain Science and State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China, and
| | - Yu-Qiu Zhang
- Institute of Neurobiology, Institutes of Brain Science and State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China, and
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Xu X, Chen H, Ling BY, Xu L, Cao H, Zhang YQ. Extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase activation in spinal cord contributes to pain hypersensitivity in a mouse model of type 2 diabetes. Neurosci Bull 2013; 30:53-66. [PMID: 24194231 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-013-1387-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2012] [Accepted: 05/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Painful peripheral neuropathy is a common complication of diabetes mellitus. The symptom of pain can become a major factor that decreases the quality of life of patients with diabetes, while effective treatment is lacking. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the changes of pain threshold in the early stage of diabetes in db/db mice, an animal model of type 2 diabetes mellitus, and the underlying molecular mechanisms. We found that (1) db/db mice (with a leptin receptor-null mutation and characterized by obesity and hyperglycemia) showed hypersensitivity to mechanical and thermal stimuli at the early stage of diabetes; (2) phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (pERK), but not total ERK in the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia in db/db mice significantly increased compared with wild-type mice. The increased pERK immunoreactivity occurred in both NeuN-expressing neurons and GFAP-expressing astrocytes, but not in Iba-1-expressing microglia; (3) both single and consecutive (for 5 days) intrathecal injections of U0126 (2 nmol per day), a selective MEK (an ERK kinase) inhibitor beginning at 8 weeks of age, attenuated the bilateral mechanical allodynia in the von-Frey test and heat hyperalgesia in Hargreave's test; and (4) db/db mice also displayed increased nocifensive behavior during the formalin test, and this was blocked by intrathecal injection of U0126. Also, the expression of pERK1 and pERK2 was upregulated following the formalin injection. Our results suggested that the activation of ERK in spinal neurons and astrocytes is correlated with pain hypersensitivity of the type 2 diabetes animal model. Inhibiting the ERK pathway may provide a new therapy for pain control in type 2 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Xu
- Department of Endocrinology, Wuxi People's Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, 214023, China
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Chandrasekar R. Alcohol and NMDA receptor: current research and future direction. Front Mol Neurosci 2013; 6:14. [PMID: 23754976 PMCID: PMC3664776 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2013.00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2013] [Accepted: 05/07/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The brain is one of the major targets of alcohol actions. Most of the excitatory synaptic transmission in the central nervous system is mediated by N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. However, one of the most devastating effects of alcohol leads to brain shrinkage, loss of nerve cells at specific regions through a mechanism involving excitotoxicity, oxidative stress. Earlier studies have indicated that chronic exposure to ethanol both in vivo and in vitro, increases NR1 and NR2B gene expression and their polypeptide levels. The effect of alcohol and molecular changes on the regulatory process, which modulates NMDAR functions including factors altering transcription, translation, post-translational modifications, and protein expression, as well as those influencing their interactions with different regulatory proteins (downstream effectors) are incessantly increasing at the cellular level. Further, I discuss the various genetically altered mice approaches that have been used to study NMDA receptor subunits and their functional implication. In a recent countable review, epigenetic dimension (i.e., histone modification-induced chromatin remodeling and DNA methylation, in the process of alcohol related neuroadaptation) is one of the key molecular mechanisms in alcohol mediated NMDAR alteration. Here, I provide a recount on what has already been achieved, current trends and how the future research/studies of the NMDA receptor might lead to even greater engagement with many possible new insights into the neurobiology and treatment of alcoholism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raman Chandrasekar
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology Core Facility, Kansas State University Manhattan, KS, USA
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Role of nonsynaptic GluN2B-containing NMDA receptors in excitotoxicity: evidence that fluoxetine selectively inhibits these receptors and may have neuroprotective effects. Brain Res Bull 2012; 93:32-8. [PMID: 23089362 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2012.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2012] [Revised: 10/09/2012] [Accepted: 10/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In acute ischaemic brain injury and chronic neurodegeneration, the primary step leading to excitotoxicity and cell death is the excessive and/or prolonged activation of glutamate (Glu) receptors, followed by intracellular calcium (Ca(2+)) overload. These steps lead to several effects: a persistent depolarisation of neurons, mitochondrial dysfunction resulting in energy failure, an increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), an increase in the concentration of cytosolic Ca(2+) [Ca(2+)]i, increased mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake, and the activation of self-destructing enzymatic mechanisms. Antagonists for NMDA receptors (NMDARs) are expected to display neuroprotective effects, but no evidence to support this hypothesis has yet been reported. A number of clinical trials using NMDAR antagonists have failed to demonstrate neuroprotective effects, either by reducing brain injury or by preventing neurodegeneration. Recent advances in NMDAR research have provided an explanation for this phenomenon. Synaptic and extrasynaptic NMDARs are composed of different subunits (GluN2A and GluN2B) that demonstrate opposing effects. Synaptic GluN2A-containing and extrasynaptic GluN2B-containing NMDARs have different co-agonists: d-serine for synaptic NMDARs and glycine for extrasynaptic NMDARs. Both co-agonists are of glial origin. The mechanisms of cell destruction or cell survival in response to the activation of NMDAR receptors depend in part on [Ca(2+)]i and the route of entry of this ion and more significantly on the subunit composition and localisation of the NMDARs. While synaptic NMDAR activation is involved in neuroprotection, the stimulation of extrasynaptic NMDARs, which are composed of GluN2B subunits, triggers cell destruction pathways and may play a key role in the neurodegeneration associated with Glu-induced excitotoxicity. In addition, it has been found that synaptic and extrasynaptic NMDA receptors have opposing effects in determining the fate of neurons. This result has led to the targeting of nonsynaptic GluN2B-containing NMDARs as promising candidates for drug research. Under hypoxic conditions, it is likely that the failure of synaptic glutamatergic transmission, the impairment of the GluN2A-activated neuroprotective cascade, and the persistent over-activation of extrasynaptic GluN2B-containing NMDARs lead to excitotoxicity. Fluoxetine, a drug widely used in clinical practice as an antidepressant, has been found to selectively block GluNR2B-containing NMDARs. Therefore, it seems to be a potential candidate for neuroprotection.
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