Effects of dried Citrus unshiu peels on gastrointestinal motility in rodents

Review of recent advances on health benefits, microbial transformations, and authenticity identification of Citri reticulatae Pericarpium bioactive compounds

The extensive health-promoting effects of Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium (CRP) have attracted researchers' interest. The difference in storage time, varieties and origin of CRP are closely related to the content of bioactive compounds they contain. The consitituent transformation mediated by environmental microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) and the production of new bioactive components during the storage process may be the main reason for 'the older, the better' of CRP. In addition, the gap in price between different varieties can be as large as 8 times, while the difference due to age can even reach 20 times, making the 'marketing young-CRP as old-CRP and counterfeiting origin' flood the entire market, seriously harming consumers' interests. However, so far, the research on CRP is relatively decentralized. In particular, a summary of the microbial transformation and authenticity identification of CRP has not been reported. Therefore, this review systematically summarized the recent advances on the main bioactive compounds, the major biological activities, the microbial transformation process, the structure, and content changes of the active substances during the transformation process, and authenticity identification of CRP. Furthermore, challenges and perspectives concerning the future research on CRP were proposed.

Prokinetic Activity of Mulberry Fruit, Morus alba L

The fruit of Morus alba L. (MAF) has been consumed as a food worldwide. MAF has also been widely used in traditional medicine for thousands of years in East Asia, and its diverse bioactivities have been reported in numerous publications. However, no prokinetic activity has been reported for MAF or its components. In the present study, therefore, we investigated the effects of MAF on gastrointestinal motor function by measuring the intestinal transit rate (ITR) of Evans blue in mice in vivo. The ITR values accelerated by MAF were significantly higher than those accelerated by cisapride or metoclopramide, suggesting that MAF has potential as a new prokinetic agent to replace cisapride and metoclopramide. We also investigated the effects of MAF on myogenic and neurogenic contractions in human intestinal smooth muscles by measuring spontaneous contractions of smooth muscle strips, smooth muscle contractions induced by neural stimulation, and migrating motor complexes from intestinal segments in the human ileum and sigmoid colon in situ. MAF increased both myogenic and neurogenic contractions to enhance ileal and colonic motility in the human intestine. Taken together, these results indicate that MAF enhanced intestinal motility by increasing both myogenic and neurogenic contractions, thereby accelerating the ITR.

Effects of black garlic on the pacemaker potentials of interstitial cells of Cajal in murine small intestine in vitro and on gastrointestinal motility in vivo

Black garlic (BG) is a newly explored food stuff obtained via fermentation of raw, healthy garlic, especially in Asian countries. Interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) are the pacemaker cells of gastrointestinal (GI) motility. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of BG extract on the pacemaker potentials of the ICC in the small intestines of mice and the possibility of controlling GI motility. The antioxidant activity of BG extract was also investigated. The whole-cell electrophysiological method was used to measure pacemaker potentials of the ICC in vitro, whereas GI motility was measured using the intestinal transit rate (ITR) in vivo. BG extract depolarized the pacemaker potentials of the ICC. Y25130 and RS39604 5-HT receptor antagonists could not inhibit the effect of BG extract on the pacemaker potentials of the ICC, whereas the 5-HT receptor antagonist SB269970 could. Pre-treatment with external Na⁺ (5 mM) or Ca²⁺-free solution inhibited the BG extract-induced depolarization of the ICC. With SB203580, PD98059, or c-jun NH₂-terminal kinase II inhibitor pre-treatment, BG extract did not induce pacemaker potential depolarization. Moreover, the ITR values were increased by BG extract. Elevation of the ITR due to BG extract was related with increased protein expression of the 5-HT₇ receptors. In addition, BG extract showed antioxidant activity. Collectively, these results highlight the ability of BG extract to regulate GI motility and the possibility of using it to develop GI motility modulators in the future. Moreover, BG showed immense potential as an antioxidant.

Assessment of Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Effects of Citrus unshiu Peel (CUP) Flavonoids on LPS-Stimulated RAW 264.7 Cells

Citrus unshiu is a popular medicinal herb in several Asian countries, in particular South Korea. C. unshiu peel (CUP) has several biologically active compounds, including flavonoids. Hence, this research aimed to label the flavonoids from CUP by HPLC-MS/MS analysis and examine their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential on LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. A total of four flavonoids (Rutin, naringin, hesperidin, and poncirin) were characterized, and their contents were quantified from CUP. It showed that the naringin is rich in CUP. Further, treatment with the flavonoids at concentrations of 2.5 and 5 μg/mL had no effect on the cell viability of RAW 264.7 macrophages. On the other hand, it decreased the production and expression of inflammatory mediators and pro-inflammatory cytokines such as NO, PGE2, TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS, and COX2 in the LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. In addition, flavonoids treatment inhibited the NF-κB activation by downregulating the p-p65 and p-IκBα proteins expression. Furthermore, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production considerably decreased at the same concentrations while antioxidant enzyme activity increased in the LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Collectively, our results show that CUP flavonoids have the potential to decrease inflammation and oxidative damage.

Novel approach for attenuation of pirfenidone-induced digestive symptoms: a respirable powder formulation of pirfenidone

Aim: Orally taken pirfenidone (PFD) often causes digestive symptoms. A respirable powder formulation of PFD (PFD-RP) was previously developed, and this study aimed to verify the risk of digestive symptoms after insufflation of PFD-RP. Materials & methods: Intestinal motility and gastrointestinal exposure levels was evaluated in PFD-RP (0.3-mg PFD/rat: a pharmacologically effective dose) and orally taken PFD (10-100 mg/kg) groups. Results & conclusion: Orally taken PFD at doses above 30 mg/kg significantly inhibited intestinal motility. In contrast, insufflated PFD-RP led to comparable intestinal motility in control group, and gastrointestinal exposure levels in PFD-RP group were markedly lower than those in orally taken PFD groups. Inhalation therapy using PFD-RP may be efficacious to reduce the risk of digestive symptoms frequently induced by orally taken PFD.

Flavonoids from the peels of Citrus unshiu Markov. and their inhibitory effects on RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis through the downregulation of c-Fos signaling in vitro

Phytochemical investigation of Citrus unshiu peels led to the isolation of eight new flavonols (7-9, 11-15) and sixteen known compounds (1-6, 10, 16-24). Their structures were elucidated using spectroscopic analysis (1D, 2D NMR, and HR-MS). Besides, all isolated compounds (1-24) were evaluated for their inhibitory effects on receptor activator of RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis in BMMs. Among them, dimethylmikanin (1), quercetogetin (2), 3,3',4',5,7,8-hexamethoxyflavone (3), 3-methoxynobiletin (4) showed a significant inhibitory effect on RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation at a concentration of 10 μM. Moreover, 3-methoxynobiletin (4) suppressed RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis by decreasing the number of osteoclasts and osteoclast actin-ring formation in a dose-dependent manner without causing any cytotoxic effects on BMMs. At the molecular level, 3-methoxynobiletin (4) inhibited RANKL-induced c-Fos expression and subsequently NFATc1 activation, as well as the expression of osteoclastogenesis-related marker genes c-Src and CtsK. These findings suggested that 3-methoxynobiletin (4) attenuated osteoclast differentiation by inhibiting RANKL-mediated c-Fos signaling and that it may have therapeutic potential for treating or preventing bone resorption-related diseases, such as osteoporosis.

Protective effects of dried mature Citrus unshiu peel (Chenpi) and hesperidin on aspirin-induced oxidative damage

Here we investigated the inhibitory effects in rats of mature Citrus unshiu peel (Chenpi) and its component hesperidin on aspirin-induced oxidative damage. The content of hesperidin in Chenpi extract was approximately 11.4%. Wistar rats were orally administered Chenpi extract or hesperidin (20 mg/kg body weight) and then were orally administered aspirin (200 mg/kg body weight) to induce oxidative damage to the stomach, liver, and kidneys. Such damage was evaluated using the formamidopyrimidine DNA glycosylase-modified comet assay. We also measured the amount of the oxidative marker 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-oxodG) in the stomach. Aspirin-induced damage to the gastric mucosa was evaluated using a bleeding score. Chenpi extract and hesperidin significantly inhibited aspirin-induced oxidative DNA damage. The bleeding score of the aspirin-induced gastric mucosa was significantly reduced by treatment with Chenpi extract and hesperidin. To investigate the effects of Chenpi extract and hesperidin on the analgesic effect of aspirin on ddY mice, we employed the acetic acid-induced writhing response test. Chenpi extract and hesperidin did not significantly affect the analgesic effect of aspirin. These results suggest that Chenpi extract and hesperidin significantly inhibit aspirin-induced gastric mucosal damage.

Animal Models for Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders

Functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGID), such as functional dyspepsia (FD) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) are characterized by chronic abdominal symptoms in the absence of an organic, metabolic or systemic cause that readily explains these complaints. Their pathophysiology is still not fully elucidated and animal models have been of great value to improve the understanding of the complex biological mechanisms. Over the last decades, many animal models have been developed to further unravel FGID pathophysiology and test drug efficacy. In the first part of this review, we focus on stress-related models, starting with the different perinatal stress models, including the stress of the dam, followed by a discussion on neonatal stress such as the maternal separation model. We also describe the most commonly used stress models in adult animals which brought valuable insights on the brain-gut axis in stress-related disorders. In the second part, we focus more on models studying peripheral, i.e., gastrointestinal, mechanisms, either induced by an infection or another inflammatory trigger. In this section, we also introduce more recent models developed around food-related metabolic disorders or food hypersensitivity and allergy. Finally, we introduce models mimicking FGID as a secondary effect of medical interventions and spontaneous models sharing characteristics of GI and anxiety-related disorders. The latter are powerful models for brain-gut axis dysfunction and bring new insights about FGID and their comorbidities such as anxiety and depression.

Improvement of chemotherapy through reducing of cachexia by using Citrus unshiu peel extract

.Colorectal cancer (CRC) is now one the fourth cause of mortality and morbidity due to cancer throughout the globe. Cachexia is more prevalent in patients with this cancer and has a negative effect on response to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 could play a key role in cachexia. Moreover strong chemotherapy medications such as doxorubicin have complications such as toxicity and cachexia. Citrus unshiu Peel have been used as traditional herbal drugs for the treatment of cancer in traditional oriental medicine (TOM). Since its main components have anti-inflammatory effects, we evaluated the anti-cachexia activity in order to support the traditional usage of Citrus unshiu peel. Aim of the study; We aimed to assess the preventive or therapeutic effect of Citrus unshiu Peel Extract (CUPE) on cachexia by reducing of inflammatory cytokines in mice bearing C26 tumor. Also the contribution role of CUPE has evaluated on improvement of chemotherapy through reducing of inflammatory cytokines. Materials and Methods; The CUPE was prepared by Soxhlet extractor and quantitative and qualitative analysis of aqua extract was performed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). C26 tumor bearing BALB/c male mice were immunized with different formulation of oral Prophylactic-therapeutic CUPE and/or intraperitoneal doxorubicin and then were monitored for weight gain, food intake and tumor size throughout the study. On the 32nd day after tumor injection, inflammatory cytokines levels, IL6, TNF-α and IL-1β were evaluated by Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) and Malondialdehyde- Thiobarbituric acid (MDA) levels were measured by standard method. Results; Oral administration of CUPE in both prophylactic and therapeutic formulation to C26 adenocarcinoma bearing mice reduced the weight loss, tumor volume, and serum MDA levels compared with untreated tumor-bearing mice and Doxorubicin (Dox) groups. Also, the combination therapy of (CUPE + Dox) leads to reducing the levels of serum IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β and tumor volume compared with untreated tumor-bearing mice and Dox groups. Serum MDA levels were considerably reduced by combination therapy of (CUPE + Dox) compared with Dox groups. Conclusions; These findings confirm the safety and efficacy of CUPE on C26 adenocarcinoma bearing mice as pure and adjuvant therapy, the results of which might be used in further human studies as a valuable natural anticancer agent alone or in combination with chemotherapy. Also the results showed that simultaneous application of CUPE and Dox leads to significant reduction of cachexia from the Dox chemotherapy.

Comparison of the Effects of Yokukansan and Yokukansankachimpihange on Glutamate Uptake by Cultured Astrocytes and Glutamate-Induced Excitotoxicity in Cultured PC12 Cells

The traditional Japanese Kampo medicine yokukansan (YKS) is effective for behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) in patients with Alzheimer's disease. As the pharmacological mechanisms, YKS is known to protect astrocytes from thiamine-deficiency (TD)-induced decreased glutamate (Glu) uptake and neuron model cells (PC 12 cells) from Glu-induced death. Yokukansankachimpihange (YKSCH) is an alternative formula to YKS, in which Citrus unshiu peel and Pinellia tuber are added to the YKS components, and is sometimes used to treat BPSD, but its pharmacological properties remain unknown. This study aims to investigate the cellular pharmacological effects of YKS and YKSCH on glutamatergic pathways, compare their efficacy, and determine the differences and similarities in the activities between these formulations. First, we examined the effects of YKS and YKSCH on Glu uptake by cultured astrocytes under TD conditions. We observed significant ameliorative effects of YKS and YKSCH on the TD-induced decrease in Glu uptake, with a 50% effective dose of 8.9 ± 1.8 μg/mL and 45.3 ± 9.2 μg/mL, respectively. Second, using cultured PC12 cells as a model for neurons, we examined the effects of YKS and YKSCH on Glu-induced cell death. We observed that YKS and YKSCH had significant inhibitory effects on Glu-induced cell death, with a 30% effective dose of 51.4 ± 20.8 μg/mL and 49.2 ± 11.0 μg/mL, respectively. Thus, while YKSCH was less effective than YKS in ameliorating the TD-induced decrease in Glu uptake by astrocytes, the two drugs showed similar inhibitory effects on Glu-induced PC12 cell death. These findings are important for understanding the differences and similarities in pharmacological actions between these drugs.

LC-MS/MS detection of citrus unshiu peel-derived flavonoids in the plasma and brain after oral administration of yokukansankachimpihange in rats

1. Yokukansankachimpihange (YKSCH), a Kampo formulation combining Citrus unshiu peel (CUP) and Pinellia tuber (PT) with yokukansan (YKS), has been recently used to treat the behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. Several flavonoids derived from CUP and PT reportedly exhibit psychopharmacological activity, but it remains unclear whether these flavonoids reach the brain after oral administration of YKSCH. 2. In this study, we first measured eight target flavonoids in the plasma and brain in rats orally administered YKSCH. Among these flavonoids, hesperidin, narirutin, nobiletin, and heptamethoxyflavone (HMF) were detected in the plasma, and nobiletin and HMF were detected in the brain. 3. Next, to clarify whether CUP and PT affect the pharmacokinetics of YKS ingredients in YKSCH, the plasma pharmacokinetics of geissoschizine methyl ether (GM) as a representative active ingredient in YKS was examined in rats orally administered YKSCH or YKS. There was no significant difference between the two groups, inferring that the pharmacokinetics of GM may not be affected by the two additional crude drugs. 4. Taken together, this study suggests that the CUP-derived flavonoids nobiletin and HMF may be responsible for the psychopharmacological effects of YKSCH in addition to YKS ingredients.

Clinical Investigations of the Effect of Citrus unshiu Peel Pellet on Obesity and Lipid Profile

Objectives

Several experimental studies have reported antiobesity and lipid-improving effects of Citrus unshiu. However, clinical studies on its effects are lacking. This study was designed to evaluate the impact of Citrus unshiu peel pellet (CUPP) on obesity and lipid profile.

Methods

For 118 patients with body mass index (BMI) > 23 who took Citrus unshiu peel pellet (CUPP) for 4 weeks in a Public Health Center, laboratory and biometric readings before and after CUPP administration were analyzed.

Results

Mean age of these subjects was 53.8±10.6 years (range: 18-75 years). There were 88 (74.6%) females in the study sample (n = 118). A significant (p < 0.01) decrease in BMI from 27.47±2.24 to 27.27±2.22 was observed in all subjects after CUPP treatment and 65.3% (N = 77) of them lost 1.03±0.83 kg of weight after 4 weeks of treatment. Total cholesterol level was significantly (p < 0.01) decreased from 204.0±37.4 mg/dL to 193.5±36.5 mg/dL. Significant (p < 0.05) decreases in levels of low-density lipoprotein, cholesterol, and triglyceride were also observed.

Conclusions

These results suggest that CUPP in practice could help weight control and improve total cholesterol level. Findings of this study provide clinical foundation for future large-scale trials to establish clinical benefits of CUPP.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of systemic and genetic toxicity of Citrus unshiu peel

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The peel of Citrus unshiu Markovich fruits (CUP), called "Jinpi" in Korea, and "Chenpi" in China, has been used for the treatment of respiratory and blood circulation disorders in traditional oriental medicine (TOM). Despite its widespread uses in TOM, no information on the safety of CUP has been reported. Thus, genotoxicity and systemic toxicity of CUP were evaluated in the current studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted a toxicological evaluation of CUP water extracts using acute and subchronic (13-week repeated-dose) toxicity tests and three genotoxicity assays (bacterial reverse mutation, mammalian chromosomal aberration, and micronuclei formation).

RESULTS

In acute and subchronic toxicity tests, both the median lethal dose (LD₅₀) and no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) were more than 4000mg/kg/day in rats. None of the genotoxicity assays revealed any mutagenicity or clastogenicity in in vitro and in vivo systems.

CONCLUSION

CUP water extracts were found to be nongenotoxic under our testing conditions and had low acute and subchronic toxicity.

Critical Evaluation of Animal Models of Gastrointestinal Disorders

Preclinical research remains an important tool for discovery and validation of novel therapeutics for gastrointestinal disorders. While in vitro assays can be used to verify receptor-ligand interactions and test for structural activity of new compounds, only whole-animal studies can demonstrate drug efficacy within the gastrointestinal system. Most major gastrointestinal disorders have been modeled in animals; however the translational relevance of each model is not equal. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a critical evaluation of common animal models that are being used to develop pharmaceuticals for gastrointestinal disorders. For brevity, the models are presented for upper gastrointestinal disorders involving the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine and lower gastrointestinal disorders that focus on the colon. Particular emphasis is used to explain the face and construct validity of each model, and the limitations of each model, including data interpretation, are highlighted. This chapter does not evaluate models that rely on surgical or other non-pharmacological interventions for treatment.

Carthami flos regulates gastrointestinal motility functions

Background

Gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms are common in the general population. This investigation studied the effects of Carthami flos (CF), a natural product, on GI motility.

Methods

We checked the intestinal transit rates (ITRs) or gastric emptying in normal and in GI-motility-dysfunction (GMD) mice in vivo. The GMD mice were made by acetic acid or streptozotocin.

Results

Both ITRs and gastric emptying were increased by CF (0.0025-0.25 g/kg) dose dependently. Also, in the GMD mice models, acetic-acid-induced peritoneal irritation, and streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice, the ITRs were decreased compared to normal mice, and these decreases were inhibited by CF.

Conclusion

These results suggest that CF is one of the good candidates for the development of a prokinetic agent that may regulate GI-motility functions.

Acute toxicity and genotoxicity of fermented traditional medicine oyaksungi-san

Background

The traditional medicine oyaksungi-san (OY) has been prescribed in East Asia for hundreds of years for the treatment of stroke, paralysis, and ataxia. OY also has therapeutic effects on arthralgia, myalgia, and rheumatoid arthritis, and recent studies have shown its protective effects against apoptosis of hippocampal cells and its anti-inflammatory effects on the peripheral blood cells of patient with cerebral infarction. Many studies have explored the use of traditional medicine and herb materials in the development of safe, novel, and effective pharmaceuticals with fewer side effects. These efforts commonly adopt a bioconversion tool for fermentation with beneficial microbes. However, only pharmaceuticals with high levels of safety and low levels of toxicity can be used in healthcare system.

Methods

OY water extract was fermented with Lactobacillus and assayed for acute toxicity and genotoxicity. Single dose acute toxicity, bacterial reverse mutation, chromosome aberrations, and micronucleus were observed and assayed in rats, histidine/tryptophan auxotrophic bacteria, Chinese hamster ovary fibroblast cells, and mice bone marrow cells, respectively.

Results

All the experimental animals showed no abnormal behavior, clinical signs, body weight increases, or mortality. In the bacterial cultures, no revertant colonies were observed. Morphological and numerical chromosomal aberrations were not found in all metaphases examined. Frequency of induced micronuclei was not significantly increased in all doses applied.

Conclusion

As a whole, no acute toxicity or genotoxicity were observed in all the assays examined. Therefore, fermented OY is considered to be a safe material that can be used for development of complementary and alternative medicine using bioconversion.

DisArticle: a web server for SVM-based discrimination of articles on traditional medicine

BACKGROUND

Much research has been done in Northeast Asia to show the efficacy of traditional medicine. While MEDLINE contains many biomedical articles including those on traditional medicine, it does not categorize those articles by specific research area. The aim of this study was to provide a method that searches for articles only on traditional medicine in Northeast Asia, including traditional Chinese medicine, from among the articles in MEDLINE.

RESULTS

This research established an SVM-based classifier model to identify articles on traditional medicine. The TAK + HM classifier, trained with the features of title, abstract, keywords, herbal data, and MeSH, has a precision of 0.954 and a recall of 0.902. In particular, the feature of herbal data significantly increased the performance of the classifier. By using the TAK + HM classifier, a total of about 108,000 articles were discriminated as articles on traditional medicine from among all articles in MEDLINE. We also built a web server called DisArticle ( http://informatics.kiom.re.kr/disarticle ), in which users can search for the articles and obtain statistical data.

CONCLUSIONS

Because much evidence-based research on traditional medicine has been published in recent years, it has become necessary to search for articles on traditional medicine exclusively in literature databases. DisArticle can help users to search for and analyze the research trends in traditional medicine.

Effects of Lizhong Tang on gastrointestinal motility in mice

AIM

To investigate the effects of Lizhong Tang, a traditional Chinese medicine formula, on gastrointestinal motility in mice.

METHODS

The in vivo effects of Lizhong Tang on GI motility were investigated by measuring the intestinal transit rates (ITRs) and gastric emptying (GE) values in normal mice and in mice with experimentally induced GI motility dysfunction (GMD).

RESULTS

In normal ICR mice, the ITR and GE values were significantly and dose-dependently increased by Lizhong Tang (ITR values: 54.4% ± 1.9% vs 65.2% ± 1.8%, P < 0.01 with 0.1 g/kg Lizhong Tang and 54.4% ± 1.9% vs 83.8% ± 1.9%, P < 0.01 with 1 g/kg Lizhong Tang; GE values: 60.7% ± 1.9% vs 66.8% ± 2.1%, P < 0.05 with 0.1 g/kg Lizhong Tang and 60.7% ± 1.9% vs 72.5% ± 1.7%, P < 0.01 with 1 g/kg Lizhong Tang). The ITRs of the GMD mice were significantly reduced compared with those of the normal mice, which were significantly and dose-dependently reversed by Lizhong Tang. Additionally, in loperamide- and cisplatin-induced models of GE delay, Lizhong Tang administration reversed the GE deficits.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that Lizhong Tang may be a novel candidate for development as a prokinetic treatment for the GI tract.

Regulation of the pacemaker activities in cultured interstitial cells of Cajal by Citrus unshiu peel extracts

The Citrus unshiu peel has been widely used for the treatment of gastrointestinal (GI) disorders in Eastern traditional medicine. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of Citrus unshiu peel extract (CPE) on the pacemaker activity of the GI tract in cultured interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) derived from the mouse small intestine. The whole‑cell patch‑clamp configuration was used to record pacemaker potentials. In current clamp mode, exposure to CPE caused membrane pacemaker depolarization in a concentration‑dependent manner. In the presence of the muscarinic M2 receptor antagonist, methoctramine, CPE induced membrane pacemaker depolarization, whereas treatment with the muscarinic M3 receptor antagonist, 1,1-dimethyl-4-diphenylacetoxypiperidinium iodide, inhibited CPE‑induced responses. When the pipette solution contained guanosine 5'-(β-thio) diphosphate trilithium salt (1 mM), CPE marginally induced membrane pacemaker depolarization. In addition, CPE‑induced membrane pacemaker depolarization was inhibited following exposure to the active phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor U‑73122, but not the inactive PLC inhibitor U‑73343. In the presence of a p42/p44 mitogen‑activated protein kinase (MAPK) inhibitor (PD98059), a p38 MAPK inhibitor (SB203580) or a c‑jun NH2‑terminal kinase (JNK) II inhibitor, CPE failed to induce membrane pacemaker depolarization. These results suggest that CPE may affect GI motility through modulating ICC pacemaker activity by activating the muscarinic M3 receptor and inducing the G‑protein dependent PLC and MAPK signaling pathways.

Effects of the roots of Liriope Platyphylla Wang Et tang on gastrointestinal motility function

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Liriope platyphylla Wang et Tang continues to be used in Korea as a traditional medicine for the treatment of gastrointestinal (GI) disorders related to constipation and abnormal GI motility.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Because GI disorders, especially GI motility dysfunctions, are major lifelong problems, the authors investigated the effects of a water extract of the roots of L. platyphylla Wang et Tang (LPE) on the pacemaker potentials (PPTs) of interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) and on GI motility in male ICR mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Enzymatic digestions were used to dissociate ICCs from small intestines, and the whole-cell patch-clamp configuration was used to record PPTs generated by cultured ICCs in vitro. In vivo effects of LPE on GI motility were investigated by measuring intestinal transit rates (ITRs) of Evans blue in normal mice and in acetic acid (AA) and streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mouse models of GI motility dysfunction.

RESULTS

LPE dose-dependently depolarized PPTs in ICCs. Pretreatment with methoctramine (a muscarinic M2 receptor antagonist) did not block LPE-induced PPT depolarization. However, pretreatment with 4-DAMP (a muscarinic M3 receptor antagonist) blocked LPE-induced PPT depolarization. In addition, treatment with LY294002 (a phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor) also blocked LPE-induced PPT depolarization. Intracellular GDPβS inhibited LPE-induced PPT depolarization, and LPE-induced PPT depolarization was found to occur in a phospholipase C (PLC)- and a protein kinase C (PKC)-dependent manner. Pretreatment with Ca(2+)free solution or thapsigargin (a Ca(2+)-ATPase inhibitor in endoplasmic reticulum) abolished PPTs, and under these conditions, LPE did not depolarize ICC PPTs. In normal mice, ITRs were significantly and dose-dependently increased by LPE (0.01-1g/kg administered intragastrically (i.g.)). In addition, LPE (i.g.) significantly recovered GI motility dysfunctions in both animal models.

CONCLUSION

LPE dose-dependently depolarizes ICC PPTs through M3 receptors via external and internal Ca(2+)regulation and via G protein-, PI3K-, PLC- and PKC- dependent pathways in vitro. Also, in vivo, LPE increased ITRs in treatment naïve mice and our two mouse models of GI dysfunction. Therefore, this study shows that LPE offers a basis for the development of a prokinetic agent that prevents or alleviates GI motility dysfunctions.

[Efficacy and Safety of New Prokinetic Agent Benachio Q Solution® in Patients with Postprandial Distress Syndrome Subtype in Functional Dyspepsia: A Single-center, Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Pilot Study]

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Functional dyspepsia (FD) is a gastrointestinal disorder in which the patient suffers from chronic abdominal symptoms despite the absence of organic disease. Benachio Q solution (soln.)® is a new prokinetic herbal medicine. The aim of the present study is to determine the efficacy and safety of Benachio Q soln.® in patients with postprandial distress syndrome (PDS) subtype in FD.

METHODS

A single-center, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study was performed in 20 patients with PDS. Patients were assigned to receive either Benachio Q soln.® or placebo three times a day. After 4 weeks of treatment, the data on response rates, symptoms severity of PDS and gastric emptying time were analyzed to evaluate its efficacy. Adverse events, laboratory tests and vital sign were analyzed to assess its safety.

RESULTS

Nine patients were assigned to Benachio group and 10 patients to placebo group. The response rate after 4 weeks was 44.4% and 20.0% in Benachio and placebo group, respectively (p=0.350). The response rate during the first week in Benachio group was better compared to that of placebo group with marginal difference (33.3% vs. 0.0%, p=0.087). Changes of severity score in early satiety on second and third week were -1.8 ± 0.6, -1.9 ± 0.4 and -1.3 ± 0.5, -1.4 ± 0.6 in Benachio and placebo group, respectively (p=0.059 vs. p=0.033). No adverse event was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The new herbal drug, Benachio Q soln.® seems to improve the symptoms of PDS subtype in FD and could be used safely. Further larger trial is needed in the future.

The Pharmacological Effects of Benachio-F(®) on Rat Gastrointestinal Functions

Functional dyspepsia (FD) is a prevalent idiopathic upper gastrointestinal (GI) disorder characterized by diverse symptomatology including epigastric pain or discomfort, postprandial fullness, and early satiety. Although its pathophysiological mechanisms have not yet been fully established, the available studies suggest that the etiology of FD is invariably multifactorial. Benachio-F(®) (BF) is a proprietary liquid formulation of 7 herbal extracts that has been proposed to address this multifactorial etiology using multi-drug phytotherapy. The pharmacological effects of BF, in comparison with those of two other herbal products (Whalmyungsu(®); WM and Iberogast(®); IB) were evaluated in rats. In a laparotomy-induced rat model of delayed GI transit, BF significantly accelerated the delayed gastric emptying caused by morphine, apomorphine, and cisplatin, and also significantly increased mean gastric transit, as compared to the control animals. BF markedly increased gastric accommodation in rats and produced higher gastric volume values than did the control treatment. The effects of BF were generally comparable or superior to those of WM and IB in these models. Furthermore, BF significantly stimulated biliary flow, as compared to the control treatment. These results indicated that BF might have great potential as an effective phytotherapeutic agent capable of reducing GI symptoms and increasing quality of life in FD patients.

Effects of Schisandra chinensis extract on gastrointestinal motility in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. (SC) continues to be used as a traditional folk medicine in Asia, especially for the treatment of gastrointestinal (GI) disorders related to gastritis, diarrhea, enterocolitis and abnormal GI motility.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Because GI disorders, especially abnormal GI motility, are major lifelong problems, we investigated the effects of SC on the pacemaker activity of the interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) in murine small intestine and GI motility.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Enzymatic digestions were used to dissociate ICCs from small intestines, and the whole-cell patch-clamp configuration was used to record potentials generated by cultured ICCs. In vivo effects of SC on GI motility were investigated by measuring the intestinal transit rate (ITR) of Evans blue in normal and GI motility dysfunction mice.

RESULTS

SC extracts depolarized the membrane potentials of ICCs in a dose dependent manner. Pretreatment with Ca(2+) free solution or thapsigargin (a Ca(2+)-ATPase inhibitor in the endoplasmic reticulum) abolished the generation of pacemaker potentials by ICCs, and under these conditions, SC extract did not depolarize the membrane potentials of ICCs. In addition, membrane depolarizations were inhibited by intracellular GDPβS and by U-73122 (an active phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor). In normal mice, ITRs were significantly increased by SC extract (0.1-1g/kg, intragastrically (i.g.)) in a dose dependent manner. Also, SC extract significantly recovered the GI motility dysfunctions in acetic acid (AA)-injected and streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice, which are the GI motility animal models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

SC extract modulates pacemaker potentials in ICCs in a dose dependent manner via external and internal Ca(2+) regulations, and via G protein and the PLC pathway. In addition, SC extract increased ITRs in normal and abnormal GI motility mice models. This study shows that SC extract offers a basis for the development of a prokinetic agent that prevents or alleviates GI motility dysfunctions.

Anti-inflammatory activity of a new cyclic peptide, citrusin XI, isolated from the fruits of Citrus unshiu

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Citrus unshiu (Rutaceae) is an easy-peeling citrus fruit, which has been used as a traditional Korean medicine for improving skin elasticity, relieving fatigue and cough, and preventing bronchitis, flu, and various cancers. However, its active components associated with anti-inflammation and underlying mechanisms remain unknown. In this study, we investigated the active constituents from the fruits of Citrus unshiu and evaluated the anti-inflammatory activity in order to support the traditional usage of Citrus unshiu.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Repeated column chromatography, together with a semi-preparative HPLC purification was used to separate the bioactive constituent from the EtOAc soluble fraction of the EtOH extract of Citrus unshiu fruits. Anti-inflammatory effects of the isolated compounds on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced production of pro-inflammatory mediators were examined using RAW264.7 macrophage cells.

RESULTS

A new cyclic peptide, citrusin XI (1), was isolated and identified from the fruits of Citrus unshiu. The structure of compound 1 was elucidated by spectroscopic analysis, including 1D and 2D nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) ((1)H, (13)C, COSY, HMQC and HMBC experiments), and high resolution (HR)-mass spectrometry, and its absolute configurations were further confirmed by the Marfey׳s method. Compound 1 decreased NO production in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells in a dose-dependent manner with an IC50 value of 70μM. Compound 1 suppressed NO production by decreasing iNOS expression but COX-2 expression was slightly associated with the reduction by compound 1 in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. Furthermore, compound 1 inhibited NF-κB activation by blocking IκBα degradation and NF-κB phosphorylation in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that a new cyclic peptide, citrusin XI, from Citrus unshiu fruits has anti-inflammatory properties that inhibit the release of pro-inflammatory mediators. Compound 1 decreases NO production by decreasing iNOS expression and NF-κB activation associated with IκBα degradation and NF-κB phosphorylation in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. This is the first study to clarify the underlying mechanism of the anti-inflammatory effect exerted by a pure isolated compound from Citrus unshiu in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cells. The phytochemical, citrusin XI of Citrus unshiu may serve as lead compound in the design of new agents for preventing and treating inflammatory diseases.

Effects of traditional Chinese herbal medicine San-Huang-Xie-Xin-Tang on gastrointestinal motility in mice

AIM: To investigate the effects of San-Huang-Xie-Xin-Tang (SHXXT), a herbal product used in traditional Chinese medicine, on gastrointestinal (GI) motility in mice.

METHODS: The in vivo effects of SHXXT on GI motility were investigated by measuring the intestinal transit rates (ITRs) using Evans blue in normal mice and in mice with experimentally induced GI motility dysfunction (GMD).

RESULTS: In normal ICR mice, ITRs were significantly and dose-dependently increased by SHXXT (0.1-1 g/kg). GMD was induced by injecting acetic acid or streptozotocin intraperitoneally. The ITRs of GMD mice were significantly reduced compared to normal mice, and these reductions were significantly and dose-dependently inhibited by SHXXT (0.1-1 g/kg).

CONCLUSION: These results suggest that SHXXT is a novel candidate for the development of a prokinetic agent that may prevent or alleviate GMD.

Chemical Composition and Anti-inflammation Activity of Essential Oils from Citrus unshiu Flower

Though many essential oils from citrus peels are claimed to have several medicinal functions, the chemical composition and biological activities of the essential oils of Citrus flowers have not been well described. Therefore, this study intended to investigate the chemical composition and anti-inflammatory potential of essential oils from C. unshiu flower (CEO) to support its purported beneficial health effects. The chemical constituents of the CEO, analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), included γ-terpinene (24.7%), 2-β-pinene (16.6%), 1-methyl-2-isopropylbenzene (11.5%), L-limonene (5.7%), β-ocimene (5.6%), and α-pinene (4.7%). The effects of the CEO on nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW 264.7 macrophages were also examined. The results indicate that the CEO is an effective inhibitor of LPS-induced NO and PGE2 production in RAW 264.7 cells. Additionally, CEO was shown to suppress the production of inflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and IL-6. Based on these results, CEO may be considered a potential anti-inflammatory candidate with human health benefits.

Antianxiety-like effects of Chimpi (dried citrus peels) in the elevated open-platform test

Dried citrus peels (Chimpi) is one of the most common natural medicines with qi (energy flow) rectifying and shi (dampness) drying actions, which originates from Citrus unshiu, and/or C. reticulata according to the definition of the pharmacopoeiae of Japan and China. In this study, the pharmacological effects of their extracts and major chemical constituents hesperidin and its aglycone hesperetin on anxiety were examined with an anxiety model of elevated open-platform test using ICR male mice (6-week-old) and total duration of freezing was decreased in fluoxetine-treated mice, which is a simple and highly sensitive to the effects of serotonergic anxiolytics. Moreover, yokukansankachimpihange (YKH), a combination of yokukansan with Chimpi and Hange (Pinellia) was also examined because Chimpi is considered to play a crucial part in this formula against anxious symptoms in dementia patients. The results showed that Chimpi and YKH possess a significant anxiolytic-like effect similar to that of fluoxetine, suggesting that they might be similar to fluoxetine in their pharmacological actions through the serotonergic neurotransmission pathway. Moreover, it also suggested that the major chemical constituent, hesperidin could be an active principle attributed to the antianxiety-like effects with a direct and indirect role via its aglycone hesperetin.