Survey of moniliformin in wheat- and corn-based products using a straightforward analytical method

Diversity of Mycotoxins Produced by Fusarium Strains Infecting Weeds

Although Fusarium is mainly known as an agricultural pathogen that affects monocotyledonous plants, it can also infect different species of weeds in the agricultural environment, thereby contributing to the production of mycotoxins in cereals. In this study, we present new developmental data on the diversity of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium avenaceum strains from weeds under field conditions. Regarding the potential for the strain dependence of mycotoxin production, this study demonstrated that all F. graminearum strains isolated from weeds and spring wheat showed high potential for deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-ADON), 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15-ADON), and nivalenol (NIV) production in spring wheat under field conditions. It was determined that F. graminearum is a typical producer of B-type trichothecenes. All strains of F. avenaceum isolated from spring wheat and weeds have the potential to produce enniatins and moniliformin in spring wheat. Each type of weed can host different Fusarium species and strains that produce completely different mycotoxins. Therefore, the distribution of mycotoxins in spring wheat grain may depend more on the Fusarium species or strains that infect the weeds than on the pathogen's host plant species. The predominance of specific mycotoxins in cereals depends on the year's weather conditions and the diversity of Fusarium species present in the field.

Traditional Foods From Maize (Zea mays L.) in Europe

Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the major crops of the world for feed, food, and industrial uses. It was originated in Central America and introduced into Europe and other continents after Columbus trips at the end of the 15th century. Due to the large adaptability of maize, farmers have originated a wide variability of genetic resources with wide diversity of adaptation, characteristics, and uses. Nowadays, in Europe, maize is mainly used for feed, but several food specialties were originated during these five centuries of maize history and became traditional food specialties. This review summarizes the state of the art of traditional foodstuffs made with maize in Southern, South-Western and South-Eastern Europe, from an historic evolution to the last research activities that focus on improving sustainability, quality and safety of food production.

Co-Occurrence of Moniliformin and Regulated Fusarium Toxins in Maize and Wheat Grown in Italy

The co-occurrence of moniliformin (MON), fumonisins (FBs), and deoxynivalenol (DON) was evaluated in maize, durum, and common wheat grown in different experimental fields located in several Italian regions. MON was quantified using a LC-MS/MS method adding lanthanum ions in the mobile phase. In maize, MON contamination was widespread and considerable; the toxin was detected in almost all the samples (95.1%) and exceeded 500 and 1000 µg kg-1 in 42.0% and in 18.5% of samples, respectively. Significant positive correlation was found between MON and FB contamination levels. When there were not droughty climate conditions, a positive significant correlation was found between growing degree days (GDD) and MON values. In wheat, MON contamination was not widespread like in maize and it was lower in common wheat than in durum wheat. In durum wheat, MON was detected in 45.0% of the samples with only 6 samples (7.5%) exceeding 500 µg kg-1, while in common wheat the toxin was detected above the LOD in 18.7% of samples exceeding 100 µg kg-1 in only two samples (2.5%). No correlation was found with DON contamination. Climate conditions influenced both MON and DON occurrence.

LC-MS/MS and LC-UV Determination of Moniliformin by Adding Lanthanide Ions to the Mobile Phase

An innovative chromatographic analysis was developed for the determination of moniliformin (MON). Because of its ionic nature, MON is weakly retained in reversed-phase chromatography and the separation may be tricky. Nevertheless, this technique is normally used either with the formation of ion pairs or employing specific RP columns for polar compounds, or combining anion exchange and hydrophobic interactions. Hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) was also used, but a non-negligible peak tailing was observed. Besides its ionic nature, MON is a di-ketone and di-ketones, mainly β-di-ketones, can easily form complexes with lanthanide ions. Then, in this work the addition of lanthanide ions to the mobile phase was investigated, aiming at improving peak shape and MON separation. La3+, Tb3+ or Eu3+ aqueous solutions were used as mobile phase and MON was chromatographed using a LC-NH2 column. The probable formation of coordination complexes lanthanide-MON in the HPLC mobile phase allowed to obtain a symmetrical peak shape and a satisfactory chromatographic separation by both mass spectrometry (MS/MS) and UV detection. Finally, a suitable extraction and purification method for MON determination in cereal samples was developed.

A multi-year survey of mycotoxins and ergosterol in Canadian oats

Canadian oat harvest samples, deliveries to processors, and train shipments from primary elevators were collected from mid-2014 through mid-2017 and analyzed for 26 mycotoxins and the fungal biomarker ergosterol. Of the 26 mycotoxins, 7 were not detected in any sample. The most frequently measured mycotoxins were beauvericin (in over 95% of samples analyzed), followed by tentoxin, culmorin, alternariol, alternariol methyl ether, and deoxynivalenol. Median concentrations of the Fusarium-produced mycotoxins ranged from 68 to 1142 μg/kg for deoxynivalenol, 39 to 188 μg/kg for HT-2 and T-2 toxins, 66 to 232 μg/kg for nivalenol, and less than 35 μg/kg for beauvericin. Median concentrations of the sum of Alternaria-produced mycotoxins were all less than 250 μg/kg. Concentrations of analytes varied among years, as well as among growing areas, for the harvest samples. Ergosterol, Fusarium, and Alternaria mycotoxin concentrations appeared to increase from the west toward the eastern Prairies and the province of Quebec; the differences were not statistically significant though. Ochratoxin A in deliveries and train shipments showed annual cyclic increases in the late summer. The results of the survey demonstrate the general compliance of Canadian oats with existing maximum levels for mycotoxins and indicate that in late summer and in years with increased Fusarium infection, there can be a need for monitoring of ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol, respectively, to mitigate risks of noncompliant grain.

A critical review of producers of small lactone mycotoxins: patulin, penicillic acid and moniliformin

A very large number of filamentous fungi has been reported to produce the small lactone mycotoxins patulin, penicillic acid and moniliformin. Among the 167 reported fungal producers of patulin, only production by 29 species could be confirmed. Patulin is produced by 3 Aspergillus species, 3 Paecilomyces species, 22 Penicillium species from 7 sections of Penicillium, and one Xylaria species. Among 101 reported producers of penicillic acid, 48 species could produce this mycotoxin. Penicillic acid is produced by 23 species in section Aspergillus subgenus Circumdati section Circumdati, by Malbranchea aurantiaca and by 24 Penicillium species from 9 sections in Penicillium and one species that does not actually belong to Penicillium (P. megasporum). Among 40 reported producers of moniliformin, five species have been regarded as doubtful producers of this mycotoxin or are now regarded as taxonomic synonyms. Moniliformin is produced by 34 Fusarium species and one Penicillium species. All the accepted producers of patulin, penicillic acid and moniliformin were revised according to the new one fungus – one name nomenclatural system, and the most recently accepted taxonomy of the species.