Continuous peripheral nerve blocks for postoperative analgesia in children: feasibility and side effects in a cohort study of 339 catheters

The impact of combined administration of ropivacaine and dexamethasone on postoperative analgesia in perianal surgery with pudendal nerve block under ultrasound guidance: a prospective randomized controlled study

Background

In recent years, severe pain after perianal surgery has seriously affected the prognosis of hospitalized patients. How to maximize the improvement of postoperative pain and perioperative comfort becomes particularly important.

Methods

This study was a double-blind randomized controlled trial (Registration No.: ChiCTR2100048760, Registration Date: 16 July 2021, Link: www.chictr.org.cn/showproj.html?proj=130226), and patients were randomly divided into two groups: one group underwent postoperative 20 mL bilateral pudendal nerve block with 0.5% ropivacaine (P group), and the other group underwent postoperative 20 mL bilateral pudendal nerve block with 0.5% ropivacaine + 8 mg dexamethasone (PD group). The primary outcome was the incidence of moderate to severe pain at the first postoperative dressing change. Secondary outcomes included Quality of recovery-15 (QoR-15) score at 3 days after surgery, sleep quality, pain score at 3 days after surgery, and incidence of adverse events.

Results

In the main outcome indicators, the incidence was 41.7% in the P group and 24.2% in the PD group (p = 0.01). The QoR-15 score and sleep quality in PD group were better than those in P group 2 days before surgery. The incidence of postoperative urinary retention was significantly decreased in PD group (p = 0.01).

Conclusion

Local anesthesia with dexamethasone combined with pudendal nerve block after perianal surgery can reduce the incidence of moderate to severe pain during the first dressing change. This may be one of the approaches to multimodal analgesia after perianal surgery.

Clinical Trial Registration

https://www.chictr.org.cn/, identifier ChiCTR2100048760.

Continuous Epidural Analgesia Versus Continuous Peripheral Nerve Block in Unilateral Lower Extremity Pediatric Orthopedic Surgery: A Matched Case Comparison Study

Introduction Continuous epidural analgesia (CEA) provides effective postoperative pain relief but includes a substantial side effect profile. Continuous peripheral nerve blocks (CPNBs) have fewer side effects and may quicken ambulation. The purpose of this study was to compare the morphine milligram equivalents (MMEs), need for analgesic rescue, visual analog scale (VAS) pain scores, time to ambulation, postoperative blood pressures, length of stay (LOS), and adverse event rates. Methods This was a matched case comparison study of pediatric patients (ages 8-17) undergoing unilateral lower limb surgery (41 CEA and 36 CPNB). Patients with a history of chronic pain, previous lower extremity surgery, and developmental delay were excluded. The Chi-square test and Student's t-test were used, and p-values < 0.05 were considered significant. Results There were no statistically significant differences in demographics or the American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) grade. There were no significant differences in postoperative MMEs, the need for analgesic rescue, or VAS scores on any postoperative day. The CEA group had a longer time to ambulation (2.56 ± 0.93 days versus 1.89 ± 0.69 days, p = 0.004). The CEA group demonstrated a higher number of days of systolic hypotension (0.61 ± 0.97 mmHg versus 0.06 ± 0.23 mmHg, p = 0.0009) and diastolic hypotension (1.90 ± 1.24 mmHg versus 1.00 ± 0.93 mmHg, p = 0.0006). There were no significant differences in the length of stay between the CEA and CPNB groups (5.08 versus 4.24, p = 0.28). There was no statistically significant difference between the rates of pruritus, light-headedness, and altered mental status. The CEA group demonstrated higher rates of nausea (51.2% versus 13.9%, p = 0.001), constipation (36.6% versus 8.3%, p = 0.004), urinary retention (9.8% versus 0%, p = 0.006), and average number of minor adverse events per patient (1.02 versus 0.25, p = 0.002). Conclusions CPNBs and CEAs demonstrate equivalent postoperative opioid use after unilateral lower extremity surgery in the pediatric population. In our population, a low complication rate and a decreased time to ambulation were seen in the CPNB group. There may be certain select scenarios priorly managed with a CEA that can be appropriately managed with a CPNB. A prospective multicenter study incorporating patient satisfaction data could further facilitate the incorporation of CPNB in pediatric pain management protocols after orthopedic surgery.

Continuous Peripheral Block as a Pain Treatment for Redressment and Physical Therapy in a 7-Year-Old Child - A Case Report

Continuous peripheral nerve block, also known as "local anesthetic perineural infusion," refers to percutaneous placement of a catheter near a peripheral nerve or plexus followed by administration of a local anesthetic through a catheter to provide anesthesia, or analgesia for several days, in some cases even for a month. This report describes the case of a 7 year old boy with left elbow contracture with limited flexion and extension who was admitted to the Clinic of Pediatric Surgery for redressment of the elbow and physical therapy. An ultrasound-guided axillary brachial plexus block was performed, with placement of a non-tunneled perineural catheter. Redressment of the left elbow was performed twice and before each redressment boluses of local anesthetic were applied through the perineural catheter. Physical therapy was performed painlessly with continuous perineural infusion. On the 5th day of catheter placement, the perineural catheter was removed without any prior complications such as hematoma, infection, catheter dislocation or leakage of local anesthetic. Our goal is to minimize the psychological and physical trauma to the patient, no matter how immature the patient is. Continuous regional anesthesia in children is a safe technique in postoperative pain management that facilitates early mobilization due to its sufficient analgesia and better comfort. It can provide in-home treatment, with adequate education for patients and parents, and improve rehabilitation in children.

Peripheral Nerve Block Complications in Children

Regional anesthesia, and in particular peripheral nerve block (PNB) techniques, complement existing anesthetic and pain management strategies and facilitate a comprehensively safer experience for the pediatric patient. Ultimately, the use of regional anesthesia cultivates a more satisfactory experience for all involved. Complication rates are very low, making PNBs a very safe option as proliferative incorporation of ultrasound technology has led to further enhancement of regional anesthesia safety and efficacy in the pediatric population.

Reduction of leakage from insertion site during continuous femoral nerve block with catheter-through-needle versus catheter-over-needle technique for postoperative analgesia after total knee arthroplasty: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Continuous femoral nerve block (CFNB) is a common procedure used for postoperative analgesia in total knee arthroplasty. Continuous nerve block using a conventional needle (catheter-through-needle/CTN) is complicated by leakage of the anesthetic from the catheter insertion site. A different type of needle (catheter-over-needle/ CON) is now available, which is believed to reduce leakage as the diameter of the catheter is larger than that of the needle. The purpose of this study was to compare the incidence of leakage from the catheter insertion site during CFNB while using CTN and CON for postoperative analgesia after total knee arthroplasty (TKA).

METHODS

This prospective, randomized, single-blinded controlled study included 60 patients who were scheduled for TKA at our facility between May 2016 and November 2017. Patients were randomly allocated to the CTN or CON groups. All patients in both groups received CFNB and sciatic nerve block for postoperative analgesia. The administration of 0.16% levobupivacaine mixed with 6 mg of indigo carmine (a dye added to easily identify leakage) was started at 6 ml/h at the end of surgery. The primary outcome was the incidence of leakage from the catheter insertion site. We further investigated the degree of leakage, the incidence of catheter migration, pain scores using the numerical rating scale at 48 h postoperatively, and the number of days until the operated knee could be flexed 120 degrees postoperatively in both groups.

RESULTS

The CON group had a significantly lower incidence and degree of leakage from the catheter insertion site. There were no significant differences in other measurement outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Use of CON reduces the incidence of leakage from the catheter insertion site during CFNB in the use of postoperative analgesia for total knee arthroplasty. Future research is needed to determine additional benefits of using CON related to decreased leakage.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study was registered in the University Hospital Medical Information Network (UMIN) Clinical Trials Registry ( UMIN000021537 ), prospectively registered on 18 March 2016.

Comparative study between ultrasound-guided pudendal nerve block and caudal epidural block anesthesia in children undergoing hypospadias surgery

Background

The aim of the study is to compare the effectiveness and safety of ultrasound-guided pudendal nerve block versus caudal epidural block as a part of multimodal analgesia in children undergoing hypospadias surgery.

In this prospective, single-blinded study, 50 patients were randomized into 2 groups (25 each group) either receiving ultrasound-guided pudendal nerve block group A or caudal epidural block group B. In the pudendal nerve block group, patients were injected with 0.3 mL/kg 0.25% bupivacaine and 1 ug/kg fentanyl. In the caudal epidural group, patients were injected with 1 mL/kg 0.25% bupivacaine and 1 ug/kg fentanyl. Consumption of paracetamol was assessed during the first 24 h postoperatively. The “objective pain scale” done by Hannalah and Broadman was used to assess postoperative pain.

Results

This prospective randomized controlled single-blind clinical study was performed on total (50) ASA status I or II patients, of age 3 to 6 years scheduled for hypospadias surgery.

For the primary outcome, there was no statistically significant difference found between the two studied groups regarding objective pain score at arrival to PACU with p value = 1.000 while there was a statistically significant increase in pain score in group B than group A at 6 h and 12 h with p value = 0.017 and 0.003, respectively. Also, no statistically significant difference found between the two groups after 18 h with p value = 0.238 may be due to receiving acetaminophen dose in group B. Finally there was a statistically significant increase found in objective pain score in group B at 24 h than group A with p value = 0.015. And there was a statistically significant increase in time to first analgesia in group A than group B with p value < 0.001 while there was a statistically significant increase in total dose of acetaminophen in group B than group A with p value < 0.001.

Conclusion

Both ultrasound-guided pudendal block and caudal epidural block are effective and safe methods for postoperative analgesia for children undergoing hypospadias surgery but ultrasound-guided pudendal block gives more postoperative pain control.

Pharmacological Treatment for Acute Traumatic Musculoskeletal Pain in Athletes

Pain management is a crucial issue for athletes who train and compete at the highest performance levels. There are still evidence gaps for the use of analgesics for sports injuries despite the growing interest in training and competition settings. However, high-quality research is needed to determine the most appropriate and optimal timing and formulations in non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug and opioid management, particularly given the strictness of anti-doping regulations. Indeed, the role of pharmacological therapy in reducing acute traumatic pain in athletes should still be addressed to minimize the timing of return to sport. Therefore, the aim of this comprehensive review was to summarize the current evidence about pain management in the setting of acute injury in elite athletes, providing the most informed strategy for pain relief and performance recovery.

Effects of prolonged peri-neural bupivacaine infusion in rat sciatic nerves (axon and myelin)

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

Peripheral-nerve blocks (PNBs) using continuous-infusion of local anesthetics are used to provide perioperative analgesia. Yet little research exists to characterize the histopathological effects of continuous long-duration PNBs. Herein we test the hypothesis that continuous peri-neural bupivacaine infusion (3-day vs. 7-day infusion) contributes to histologic injury in a duration-dependent manner using an in vivo model of rat sciatic nerves.

METHODS

We placed indwelling catheters in 22 rats for infusion with low-dose (0.5mg/kg/hr) bupivacaine or normal saline proximal to the right sciatic nerves for 3 or 7 consecutive days. Hind-limb analgesia was measured using Von-Frey nociceptive testing. At infusion end, rats were sacrificed, bilateral nerves were sectioned and stained with hematoxylin and eosin and CD68 for evaluation of inflammatory response, and eriochrome to assess damage to myelin.

RESULTS

Animals receiving continuous infusion of bupivacaine maintained analgesia as demonstrated by significant decrease (50% on average) in nociceptive response in bupivacaine-infused limbs across time points. Both 7-day saline and bupivacaine-infused sciatic nerves showed significantly-increased inflammation by H&E staining compared to untreated native nerve controls (P = 0.0001, P < 0.0001). Extent of inflammation did not vary significantly based on infusate (7-day saline vs. 7-day bupivacaine P > 0.99) or duration (3-day bupivacaine vs 7-day bupivacaine P > 0.99). No significant change in sciatic nerve myelin was found in bupivacaine-infused animals compared to saline-infused controls, regardless of duration.

CONCLUSIONS

Long-duration (7-day) bupivacaine infusion provided durable post-operative analgesia, yet contributed to equivalent neural inflammation as short duration (3-day) infusion of bupivacaine or saline with no evidence of demyelination.

Guidelines for Opioid Prescribing in Children and Adolescents After Surgery: An Expert Panel Opinion

IMPORTANCE

Opioids are frequently prescribed to children and adolescents after surgery. Prescription opioid misuse is associated with high-risk behavior in youth. Evidence-based guidelines for opioid prescribing practices in children are lacking.

OBJECTIVE

To assemble a multidisciplinary team of health care experts and leaders in opioid stewardship, review current literature regarding opioid use and risks unique to pediatric populations, and develop a broad framework for evidence-based opioid prescribing guidelines for children who require surgery.

EVIDENCE REVIEW

Reviews of relevant literature were performed including all English-language articles published from January 1, 1988, to February 28, 2019, found via searches of the PubMed (MEDLINE), CINAHL, Embase, and Cochrane databases. Pediatric was defined as children younger than 18 years. Animal and experimental studies, case reports, review articles, and editorials were excluded. Selected articles were graded using tools from the Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine 2011 levels of evidence. The Appraisal of Guidelines for Research & Evaluation (AGREE) II instrument was applied throughout guideline creation. Consensus was determined using a modified Delphi technique.

FINDINGS

Overall, 14 574 articles were screened for inclusion, with 217 unique articles included for qualitative synthesis. Twenty guideline statements were generated from a 2-day in-person meeting and subsequently reviewed, edited, and endorsed externally by pediatric surgical specialists, the American Pediatric Surgery Association Board of Governors, the American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Surgery Executive Committee, and the American College of Surgeons Board of Regents. Review of the literature and guideline statements underscored 3 primary themes: (1) health care professionals caring for children who require surgery must recognize the risks of opioid misuse associated with prescription opioids, (2) nonopioid analgesic use should be optimized in the perioperative period, and (3) patient and family education regarding perioperative pain management and safe opioid use practices must occur both before and after surgery.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

These are the first opioid-prescribing guidelines to address the unique needs of children who require surgery. Health care professionals caring for children and adolescents in the perioperative period should optimize pain management and minimize risks associated with opioid use by engaging patients and families in opioid stewardship efforts.

Utilization of a Continuous Pericapsular Nerve Group (PENG) Block with an Opioid-Sparing Repair of a Femoral Neck Fracture in a Pediatric Patient

In the pediatric population, femoral neck fractures are usually associated with high-impact trauma and often present with pain in the groin area. Regional anesthesia can offer adjunctive therapy for acute pain management. Various techniques have been employed to circumvent pain related to hip fractures and resultant hip surgery. Neuraxial, lumbar plexus, caudal, epidural, fascia iliaca, and femoral continuous nerve block techniques are advantageous in mitigating hip pain. However, these approaches require patient repositioning during placement and carry the potential for motor blockade with resultant weakness. A newly described method, the Pericapsular Nerve Group (PENG) block, allows for analgesia of the anterior hip capsule via the obturator, accessory obturator, and femoral nerves while sparing motor blockade. PENG blockade has demonstrated efficacy in both adult and pediatric patients. Herein, we describe the perioperative course of a 9-year-old girl with a transcervical femoral neck fracture who underwent an opioid-sparing open repair with the utilization of a continuous PENG block. PENG blockade via a continuous nerve block resulted in optimal analgesia and markedly reduced perioperative opioid consumption with preserved motor function. Our experience facilitated early discharge and rehabilitation mobility while reducing potential rebound hyperalgesia and enabling parental/patient satisfaction.

Current Evidence for Acute Pain Management of Musculoskeletal Injuries and Postoperative Pain in Pediatric and Adolescent Athletes

OBJECTIVE

Sports-related injuries in young athletes are increasingly prevalent with an estimated 2.6 million children and adolescents sustaining a sports-related injury annually. Acute sports-related injuries and surgical correction of sports-related injuries cause physical pain and psychological burdens on pediatric athletes and their families. This article aims to evaluate current acute pain management options in pediatric athletes and acute pain management strategies for postoperative pain after sports-related injuries. This article will also elucidate which areas of pain management for pediatric athletes are lacking evidence and help direct future clinical trials.

DATA SOURCES

We conducted a literature search through PubMed and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials to provide an extensive review of initial and postoperative pain management strategies for pediatric sports-related musculoskeletal injuries.

MAIN RESULTS

The current knowledge of acute pain management for initial sports-related injuries, postoperative pain management for orthopedic surgeries, as well as complementary and alternative medical therapies in pediatric sports-related injuries is presented. Studies evaluating conservative management, enteral and nonenteral medications, regional anesthesia, and complementary medical therapies are included.

CONCLUSIONS

Adequate pain management is important for sports injuries in children and adolescents for emotional as well as physical healing, but a balance must be achieved to provide acceptable pain relief while minimizing opioid use and side effects from analgesic medications. More studies are needed to evaluate the efficacy of nonopioid analgesic medications and complementary therapies in pediatric patients with acute sports-related injuries.

Ultrasound-Guided, Continuous Brachial Plexus Blockade in a Neonate With Upper Extremity Limb Ischemia: A Case Report

Regional anesthetic blocks, especially in-dwelling catheters, are infrequently used in neonates and infants. The following report describes a neonate with a gangrenous right upper extremity requiring multiple painful debridements over several weeks. A brachial plexus catheter was placed using ultrasound guidance, and a continuous infusion of a local anesthetic was used to provide postoperative pain control. After the initial procedures, bolus doses of a local anesthetic agent provided surgical anesthesia for dressing changes, thus obviating the need for multiple general anesthetics. This case demonstrates the potential efficacy of regional techniques to both treat pain and limit anesthetic exposures in neonates.

Pain Management in Pediatric Burn Patients: Review of Recent Literature and Future Directions

Childhood burns are a profoundly traumatic and painful experience. Despite recognition of the prevalence of burn injuries in children and the severity of the associated pain, burn pain remains undertreated. At the same time, more evidence is emerging to suggest that undertreated pain has serious long-term medical and psychiatric consequences, many of which can be ameliorated with improved pain control. Pain in burn patients is, however, notoriously difficult to treat, perhaps because there is a chronic pain aspect underlying the acute pain that accompanies wound care and procedures. This difficulty is compounded by the fact that there are little data to guide decision making in these patients. This article aims to identify the best strategies to guide clinical practice through a review of the past 10 years' development in pediatric burn pain management. However, because clinical investigations remain limited in burned children, we also aim to draw attention to those areas where the data do not identify an optimal approach and further work is needed. Overall, in addition to just the traditional pharmacological approaches to pain, such as acetaminophen, benzodiazepines, and opioids, there is growing evidence to support more widespread use of regional anesthesia and novel technologies such as virtual reality. Starting with an improved understanding of the current state of the literature, we can identify areas of research and important questions whose answers will ultimately improve care and reduce suffering for this unfortunate population of children.

Pediatric Ambulatory Continuous Peripheral Nerve Blocks

Despite the widespread use of ambulatory continuous peripheral nerve blocks in adults, its use in children has been sporadic. Indications for the use of ambulatory continuous peripheral nerve block in children involve orthopedic procedure, where significant pain is anticipated beyond 24 hours. Techniques to place the perineural catheters in children are similar to that used in adults. The incidence of serious side effects in pediatric ambulatory continuous peripheral nerve block is extremely rare. When this is combined with the potential to increase patient and family satisfaction and decrease opioid-related side effects, ambulatory continuous peripheral nerve block become a compelling choice.

Postoperative pain management in children: Guidance from the pain committee of the European Society for Paediatric Anaesthesiology (ESPA Pain Management Ladder Initiative)

The main remit of the European Society for Paediatric Anaesthesiology (ESPA) Pain Committee is to improve the quality of pain management in children. The ESPA Pain Management Ladder is a clinical practice advisory based upon expert consensus to help to ensure a basic standard of perioperative pain management for all children. Further steps are suggested to improve pain management once a basic standard has been achieved. The guidance is grouped by the type of surgical procedure and layered to suggest basic, intermediate, and advanced pain management methods. The committee members are aware that there are marked differences in financial and personal resources in different institutions and countries and also considerable variations in the availability of analgesic drugs across Europe. We recommend that the guidance should be used as a framework to guide best practice.

The Safety and Efficacy of the Continuous Peripheral Nerve Block in Postoperative Analgesia of Pediatric Patients

Postoperative analgesia is imperative in the youngest patients. Pain, especially if experienced during childhood, has numerous adverse effects—from psychological, through complications of the underlying disease (prolonged treatment, hospital stay, and increased costs of the treatment) to an increase in the incidence of death due to the onset of the systemic inflammatory response. Peripheral blocks provide analgesia for 12–16 h, and are safer due to rare side effects that are easier to treat. The continuous peripheral block (CPNB) has been increasingly used in recent years for complete and prolonged analgesia of pediatric patients, as well as a part of multidisciplinary treatment of complex regional pain syndrome. It has been shown that outpatient CPNB reduces the need for parenteral administration of opioid analgetics. It has also been proved that this technique can be used in pediatric patients in home conditions. Safety of CPNB is based on the increasing use of ultrasound as well as on the introduction of single enantiomers local anesthetics (ropivacaine and levobupivacaine) in lower concentrations. It is possible to discharge patient home with catheter, but it is necessary to provide adequate education for staff, patients, and parents, as well as to have dedicated anesthesiology team. Postoperative period without major pain raises the morale of the child, parents. and medical staff.

The Effect of Fixation Technique on Continuous Interscalene Nerve Block Catheter Success: A Randomized, Double-Blind Trial

BACKGROUND

Continuous peripheral nerve blocks offer advantages over single-injection blocks, including extended analgesia and reduction in opioid consumption. These benefits require that the perineural catheter remain intact for the duration of the planned local anesthetic infusion. Mechanical displacement of catheters, leaking, and consequent failure are known complications. The aim of this study was to evaluate continuous perineural catheter tip-to-nerve apposition in vivo over 48 hours comparing 2 different simple fixation strategies.

METHODS

Subjects presenting for a continuous interscalene nerve block were randomized to perineural catheter fixation with 1 of 2 types of adhesive: Dermabond (2-octylcyanoacrylate) or Mastisol (alcohol 23A, gum mastic, storax, and methyl salicylate), covered with a simple transparent dressing. The primary outcome was the evaluation of catheter-to-nerve apposition maintenance over 48 hours via both a blinded ultrasound evaluation of local anesthetic distribution and a blinded clinical assessment. Secondary outcomes included leakage at the catheter site, pain scores, opioid consumption, catheter-to-skin migration at the insertion site, and patient satisfaction.

RESULTS

Sixty-six subjects were recruited and randomized to compare adhesive group catheter tip-to-nerve apposition on postoperative day 2 (POD 2). Within the intention-to-treat cohort, a statistically significant decrease of perineural catheter tip-to-nerve apposition in the Mastisol group (64.7%) compared with the Dermabond group (90.6%) on POD 2 (odds ratios [OR] 0.19; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.05-0.75; P = .012) was observed. Similar results were observed on POD 1 (OR 0.19; 95% CI 0.03-1.38; P = NS) and POD 2 (OR 0.14; 95% CI 0.02-0.97; P = .008) within the as-treated cohort. Catheter leakage (OR 67; 95% CI 7.3-589) and median catheter migration difference at the skin insertion site (2.0 cm; 95% CI 0.5-2.5) were also significantly greater in the Mastisol group than in the Dermabond group from POD 0 to POD 2 (P < .001). Median postoperative opioid consumption difference in morphine equivalents (3.2 mg; 95% CI - 9.0 to 14.2) was not significantly different between the Dermabond and the Mastisol groups through POD 2 (P = .542).

CONCLUSIONS

Perineural catheter fixation with Dermabond in continuous interscalene nerve block improves maintenance of catheter-to-nerve apposition when compared with Mastisol.

Efficacy of 2 Regional Pain Control Techniques in Pediatric Foot Surgery

BACKGROUND

Peripheral nerve blocks (PNBs) have the potential to reduce postoperative pain. The use of ultrasound (US) to guide PNBs may be more beneficial than nerve stimulation (NS); however, very few studies have studied this technique in children. The objective of this study was to compare postoperative pain control in pediatric patients who had general anesthesia (GA) alone compared with those who had PNB performed by NS, or PNB with both NS and US guidance. Our hypothesis was that compared with NS, the US-guided PNB would result in reduced postoperative pain and opioid use, and that both PNB conditions would have improved outcomes compared with GA.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review of foot and ankle surgery included 103 patients who were stratified into 3 groups: GA, PNB with NS, and PNB with NS and US. Pain levels were measured with visual pain scales at 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 24 hours postoperatively. Days of hospitalization, morphine and oxycodone use by weight, and time to first PRN opioid use were also recorded. A repeated measure analysis of variance was used to compare the groups, and the proportion of patients who reported a visual analog scale score of 0 was calculated for each time point.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences in pain levels between groups for the first 12 hours, but the US group had higher pain levels at 24 hours. Both US and NS groups had a longer time to PRN opioid use and used significantly less morphine compared with GA. The US group had a significantly greater proportion of pain-free patients than the other 2 groups for the first 6 hours.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of US guidance is beneficial in postoperative pain control. Both US-guided and NS-guided PNB are preferable to GA alone for lower extremity orthopaedic surgery in the pediatric population.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

III, retrospective comparative study.

Pudendal Versus Caudal Block in Children Undergoing Hypospadias Surgery: A Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Postoperative pain management after hypospadias surgery is often challenging. Caudal block is used for analgesia but has limitations. This study compares the analgesic efficiency of pudendal block with that of caudal block in pediatric patients undergoing hypospadias repair surgery.

METHODS

This prospective, double-blind, randomized, controlled study enrolled 84 patients receiving pudendal block or caudal block before hypospadias surgery. In the pudendal group, the pudendal nerve was identified using a nerve stimulator, and the block consisted of 0.25% bupivacaine 0.5 mL/kg. In the caudal group, the caudal block used 0.2% bupivacaine 1 mL/kg. Our primary outcome was pain intensity within 24 hours postoperatively. The trial was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (number: NCT02390388).

RESULTS

For the primary outcome, patients in the pudendal group had lower postoperative pain intensity when compared with the caudal group (P < 0.001). Three patients in the pudendal group and all of the patients in the caudal group needed additional analgesia within 24 hours after the surgery (P < 0.001). The family satisfaction rate was significantly higher in the pudendal group (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

For the pudendal group, the pain scores for the first 24 hours after the surgery were significantly lower and the duration of analgesia was longer.

Home peripheral nerve catheters: the first 24 months of experience at a children's hospital

CONTEXT

Home peripheral nerve catheters (PNCs) have become common practice for adult patients after major orthopedic surgery. However, use in pediatric patients is a recent application.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to review the demographics and outcomes of pediatric patients receiving a PNC at our institution.

METHODS

This retrospective study included patients from October 2012 through October 2014 undergoing orthopedic procedures with a PNC placed for postoperative pain management.

RESULTS

A total of 118 patients aged 3.2-25.3 years were identified. The types of catheters included femoral (80.5%), interscalene (11.9%), sciatic (5.9%), and supraclavicular (1.7%). The majority of patients were discharged to home on the day of surgery (77.1%). In the postanesthetic care unit, the average pain score was 2.5, the incidence of nausea/emesis was 5.9%, and the need for opioid administration was 50.8%. There were no major complications. Minor complications included a 7.6% rate of early catheter removal with 5.9% of those due to catheter leakage and an unsecure dressing. There was one case of metallic taste in the mouth without other symptoms of local anesthetic toxicity that resolved without further complication.

CONCLUSION

The implementation of a home PNC program in pediatric patients at our institution has been highly successful with a high rate of ambulatory catheters, low pain scores, low rates of nausea and vomiting, and no serious complications. Minor complications included leaking of the catheter and early discontinuation of the catheter.

Perioperative management in children with chronic pain

Children with chronic pain often undergo surgery and effective perioperative management of their pain can be challenging. Identification of the pediatric chronic pain patient preoperatively and development of a perioperative pain plan may help ensure a safer and more comfortable perioperative course. Successful management usually requires multiple different classes of analgesics, regional anesthesia, and adjunctive nonpharmacological therapies. Neuropathic and oncological pain can be especially difficult to treat and usually requires an individualized approach.

Regional anesthesia for pediatric knee surgery: a review of the indications, procedures, outcomes, safety, and challenges

The indications for surgery on the knee in children and adolescents share some similarity to adult practice in that there are an increasing number of sports-related injuries requiring surgical repair. In addition, there are some unique age-related conditions or congenital abnormalities that may present as indications for orthopedic intervention at the level of the knee. The efficacy and safety of peripheral nerve blocks (PNBs) for postoperative analgesia following orthopedic surgery has been well established in adults. Recent studies have also demonstrated earlier functional recovery after surgery in patients who received PNBs. In children, PNB is gaining popularity, and increasing data are emerging to demonstrate the feasibility, efficacy, and safety in this population. In this paper, we will review some of the most common indications for surgery involving the knee in children and the anatomy of knee, associated dermatomal and osteotomal innervation, and the PNBs most commonly used to produce analgesia at the level of the knee. We will review the evidence in support of regional anesthesia in children in terms of both the quality conferred to the immediate postoperative care and the role of continuous PNBs in maintaining effective analgesia following discharge. Also we will discuss some of the subtle challenges in utilizing regional anesthesia in the pediatric patient including the use of general anesthesia when performing regional anesthesia and the issue of monitoring for compartment syndrome. Finally, we will offer some thoughts about areas of practice that are in need of further investigation.

Regional anesthesia for an upper extremity amputation for palliative care in a patient with end-stage osteosarcoma complicated by a large anterior mediastinal mass

Tumor progression during end-of-life care can lead to significant pain, which at times may be refractory to routine analgesic techniques. Although regional anesthesia is commonly used for postoperative pain care, there is limited experience with its use during home hospice care. We present a 24-year-old male with end-stage metastatic osteosarcoma who required anesthetic care for a right-sided above-the-elbow amputation. The anesthetic management was complicated by the presence of a large mediastinal mass, limited pulmonary reserve, and severe chronic pain with a high preoperative opioid requirement. Intraoperative anesthesia and postoperative pain management were provided by regional anesthesia using an interscalene catheter. He was discharged home with the interscalene catheter in place with a continuous local anesthetic infusion that allowed weaning of his chronic opioid medications and the provision of effective pain control. The perioperative applications of regional anesthesia in palliative and home hospice care are discussed.

Tramadol for postoperative pain treatment in children

BACKGROUND

According to current recommendations a multimodal approach is believed to be the gold standard for postoperative pain treatment in children. However, several surveys in the last few years demonstrated that postoperative pain in children is still a serious problem, mainly because opioids are avoided. One of the reasons for this is the fear of severe adverse events following opioid administration. Tramadol is a weak mu-opioid agonist and inhibits reuptake of noradrenaline and serotonin (5HT). Because of a relatively wide therapeutic window and a ceiling effect with a lower risk for severe adverse events (for example respiratory depression) tramadol is a widely used opioid in children. However, the exact efficacy and occurrence of adverse events following tramadol (in comparison with placebo or other opioids) for postoperative pain treatment in children and adolescents are currently not clear.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness and side effect profile of tramadol for postoperative pain relief in children and adolescents undergoing different surgical procedures.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the following electronic databases: the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library 2014, Issue 6), MEDLINE via PubMed (January 1966 to July 2014) and EMBASE via Ovid (January 1947 to July 2014). There were no restrictions regarding language or date of publication. The reference lists of all included trials were checked for additional studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

All randomised controlled clinical trials investigating the perioperative administration of tramadol compared to placebo or other opioids for postoperative pain treatment in children and adolescents were included.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Three review authors independently assessed the study eligibility, performed the data extraction and assessed the risk of bias of included trials.

MAIN RESULTS

Twenty randomised controlled trials involving 1170 patients were included in this systematic review. The overall risk of bias in included trials was assessed as unclear, because concealment of allocation processes and blinding of outcome assessors were poorly described. Due to inconsistent outcome reporting, data from 17 included trials could be pooled for some endpoints only. Eight trials compared tramadol administration with placebo and five trials found that the need for rescue analgesia in the postoperative care unit (PACU) was reduced in children receiving tramadol (RR 0.40; 95% CI 0.20 to 0.78; low quality evidence). Only one trial investigated the number of patients with moderate to severe pain, but a non-validated pain scale was used (very low quality evidence). Four trials compared morphine with tramadol administration. There was no clear evidence of difference in the need for rescue analgesia in the PACU (RR 1.25; 95% CI 0.83 to 1.89; low quality evidence) with tramadol compared with morphine. No trials could be pooled for the outcome 'number of patients with moderate to severe pain'. Three trials were included for the comparison of tramadol with nalbuphine. There was no clear evidence for the need for rescue analgesia in the PACU (RR 0,63; 95% CI 0.16 to 2.45; low quality evidence). Only one trial reported the number of patients with moderate to severe pain, but used a non-validated pain scale (very low quality evidence). Two out of six included trials, which compared pethidine with tramadol, reported the number of children with a need for rescue analgesia within the PACU and showed no clear evidence (RR 0.93; 95% CI 0.43 to 2.02; very low quality evidence). Two trials reported the number of patients with moderate to severe pain and showed a lower RR in patients treated with tramadol (RR 0.64; 95% CI 0.36 to 1.16; low quality evidence). Only one trial was included, which compared tramadol with fentanyl, reporting the number of patients with the need for rescue analgesia (very low quality evidence). Generally, adverse events were poorly reported. Most data could be pooled for the comparison with placebo focusing on the RR for postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) in the postoperative care unit and 24 h postoperation. Children treated with tramadol, compared to placebo, did not show clear evidence of benefit for PONV in the postoperative care unit (RR 0.84; 95% CI 0.28 to 2.52; moderate quality evidence) and 24 h postoperation (RR 0.78; 95% CI 0.54 to 1.12; moderate quality evidence).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The overall evidence regarding tramadol for postoperative pain in children is currently low or very low and should be interpreted with caution due to small studies and methodological problems (different validated and non-validated pain scales with different pain triggers, missing sample size calculations and missing intention-to-treat analysis). Nevertheless, we demonstrated that tramadol administration might provide appropriate analgesia when compared to placebo; this is based on results showing reduced rescue analgesia in children treated with tramadol compared to placebo. In contrast, the evidence regarding the comparison with other opioids (for example morphine) was uncertain. Adverse events were only poorly reported, so an accurate risk-benefit analysis was not possible.

The effectiveness of ambulatory continuous peripheral nerve blocks for postoperative pain management in children and adolescents

BACKGROUND

Ambulatory continuous peripheral nerve blocks (CPNBs) are feasible for pediatric patients. We sought to evaluate the efficacy of CPNBs in a pediatric population.

METHODS

This retrospective report of 33-month prospectively collected data investigates patient, parent, and nurse pain control satisfaction score (PCSS), the incidence and severity of pain, daily analgesic consumption following discharge home with various CPNBs and On-Q pumps, and any complications and side effects related to CPNBs.

RESULTS

Four hundred and three patients (403; aged 5-22) were discharged home with 410 CPNBs (brachial and lumbar plexus, femoral, sciatic, and paravertebral); 76.7% on the day of surgery. The median/interquartile range (IQR) ropivacaine continuous infusion via On-Q pump was 0.24 (0.20-0.30) mg·kg(-1)·hr(-1), and the median/IQR duration was 72 (48-72) h. The median/IQR home PCSS was 10 (9-10). Median Postoperative Ambulatory Care Unit (PACU)/IQR pain control satisfaction scores were 10 (8-10) for the patient, 10 (9-10) for the parent, and 10 (9-10) for the nurse. Thirty-three (10.0%) patients did not report any pain at home, and median maximum home/IQR pain score was 4 (2-6). In the PACU, 126 (31.3%) patients did not report any pain and median/IQR pain score was 1 (0-3). No opioids were administered at home for 12 (4.3%) patients and in the PACU for 150 (37.4%). Sixty-three (14.4%) complications and side effects for 58 patients were reported. We report 93.1% ambulatory efficacy of CPNBs.

CONCLUSION

Our patients and their caregivers were very satisfied with ambulatory CPNBs. When combined with oral analgesics, CPNBs provided effective home postoperative analgesia.

Outpatient analgesia via paravertebral peripheral nerve block catheter and On-Q pump--a case series

Outpatient pain management after iliac crest bone harvesting can be challenging. We report the use of home L2 paravertebral nerve block catheter (L2PVBC) in a series of five children. The pain scores were low, and analgesic medication consumption was minimal. No complications were reported related with these catheters, and the patients reported very high pain control satisfaction scores. Outpatient L2PVBC can be beneficial as part of a multimodal analgesia strategy in selected pediatric patients.

Nalbuphine for postoperative pain treatment in children

BACKGROUND

Several surveys over the past few years have demonstrated that postoperative pain in children is not treated appropriately. One pharmacological treatment option in a multimodal approach for postoperative pain treatment is the systemic administration of opioids. However, opioids are rarely used for postoperative pain treatment in children due to fear of adverse events. One long-standing opioid for systemic use is nalbuphine, a kappa-receptor agonist and µ-receptor antagonist. The efficacy of nalbuphine is believed to be similar to morphine. Increased dosing might result in a ceiling effect, and thus less analgesia than expected. In addition, there might be a lower risk for opioid-induced side effects (nausea, vomiting) and severe adverse events (respiratory depression) due to the antagonistic effect of the µ-receptor. Nalbuphine may be an useful opioid for postoperative use in children, but exact efficacy (e.g. compared to other commonly used opioids) has not been determined yet.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the efficacy and adverse events of nalbuphine for acute postoperative pain treatment in children undergoing surgery.

SEARCH METHODS

We systematically searched the following databases: The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library 2013, Issue 7), MEDLINE via Pubmed (January 1966 to July 2013) and EMBASE via Ovid (January 1947 to July 2013). We did not impose any restrictions regarding language or publication date. We checked all reference lists of retrieved articles for additional references.

SELECTION CRITERIA

All randomised controlled trials (RCTs) investigating nalbuphine compared with placebo or other opioids were included.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently scanned the retrieved articles and made a decision regarding inclusion or exclusion of studies for this review. The same authors also performed the data extraction and the assessment of risk of bias.

MAIN RESULTS

Ten RCTs including 658 patients were finally included in this systematic review. Five trials compared nalbuphine with placebo. Data from one out of five studies for the outcome moderate/severe pain following nalbuphine compared to placebo gave a risk ratio (RR) 1 hour postoperatively (postop) of 0.1 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.01 to 0.71; low quality evidence) and a RR 2 hours postop of 0.14 (95% CI 0.02 to 1.06; low quality evidence). The estimated RR based on data from a single study indicated that nalbuphine reduced the requirement for analgesia two hours postop (RR 0.47; 95% CI 0.27 to 0.84; low quality evidence). Two included trials compared nalbuphine with morphine and showed a nonsignificant lower or comparable RR for moderate/severe pain at 1 hour postop (RR 0.84; 95% CI 0.12 to 5.74; low quality evidence), and 2 hours postop (RR 1.09; 95% CI 0.59 to 2.01; low quality evidence) for nalbuphine versus morphine. Four trials compared nalbuphine with tramadol for postoperative pain; data from one trial (per outcome) revealed a lower but nonsignificant RR for the need of additional rescue analgesics in children receiving nalbuphine (RR 2 hours postop 0.75; 95% CI 0.39 to 1.43; low quality evidence) (RR 12 hours postop 0.33; 95% CI 0.04 to 2.77; low quality evidence). One out of three trials comparing nalbuphine with pethidine demonstrated that the RR was not significantly lower following nalbuphine administration compared to pethidine (RR 2 hours postop 1.07; 95% CI 0.52 to 2.23; low quality evidence) (RR 24 hours postop 1.13; 95% CI 0.52 to 2.44; very low quality evidence). The most common adverse event was postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV). Only one included trial reported that the RR for PONV in the postoperative care unit (PACU) was not significantly higher following nalbuphine compared to placebo (RR 1.00; 95% CI 0.16 to 6.42; low quality evidence) nor to morphine (RR 1.33; 95% CI 0.64 to 2.77; low quality evidence).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Because the overall quality of available evidence was low, this systematic review could not definitively show that the analgesic efficacy of nalbuphine is superior compared to placebo. Furthermore, due to the lack of significant results the comparison with other common opioids is also unclear. The same holds true for the evidence focusing on adverse events following nalbuphine compared to placebo or other opioid administration. The evidence is limited, because studies did not report conclusively all important postoperative pain outcomes (e.g. number of patients with the need for rescue analgesia, postoperative pain scores). Thus, a quantitative analysis was not possible for many major aspects (e.g. rescue analgesia, pain scores) and heterogeneity could not be further explored.

Ambulatory continuous peripheral nerve blocks in children and adolescents: a longitudinal 8-year single center study

BACKGROUND

Although the role of regional anesthesia in pediatric patients has been increasing over the last few years, there are only a few small case series that describe the use of ambulatory continuous peripheral nerve blocks (CPNBs) in this patient population. In this report, we describe our experience with the use of ambulatory CPNBs in 1285 children.

METHODS

Data were collected for consecutive children who had a CPNB placed between January 2005 and December 2011 at The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia from the departmental regional anesthesia database. Data collected included demographics, the site of catheter placement and technique of nerve block, presence of sensory/motor blockade, use of perioperative opioids, and any complications related to CPNBs.

RESULTS

Continuous infusions of local anesthetics were administered via the catheters in 1285 outpatients. The mean duration of the CPNB was 50.7 ± 14.4 hours (mean ± SD). Among patients discharged home with the CPNBs, 969 (75.4%) of the patients required either no supplemental opioids or oral opioids only on an "as needed" basis in the postoperative period (confidence interval, 73.0%-77.8%). Two patients were readmitted for IV pain management after they were discharged home with the CPNB catheters. No neurological deficit related to the CPNBs was identified in any of the patients at their 6-month follow-up with the orthopedic surgeon (confidence interval, 0%-0.29%).

CONCLUSION

This audit of 1285 children shows ambulatory CPNBs can provide postoperative analgesia and may reduce the need for inpatient parenteral opioid therapy.

Risk of catheter-associated infection in young hematology/oncology patients receiving long-term peripheral nerve blocks

BACKGROUND

Continuous peripheral nerve blocks (CPNBs) are increasingly used to control postoperative and chronic pain. At our pediatric oncology institution, the duration of CPNBs is often prolonged. The risk of catheter-associated infection with prolonged CPNBs has not been previously investigated.

AIM

We analyzed the incidence of CPNB-related infection and its relation to catheter duration, catheter site, intensive care stay, and antibiotic coverage.

METHODS

All CPNBs placed at our institution between August 1, 2005 and October 31, 2010 were studied. Primary diagnosis and the site, indication, duration, and infectious adverse effects of CPNBs were obtained from our Pain Service QI database. Patients' age and sex, antibiotic administration, and number of days in intensive care were collected from patients' medical records.

RESULTS

The use of 179 catheters in 116 patients was evaluated. Mean age at CPNB placement was 15.1 years (median, 14.7; range, 0.4-26.9). The most frequent indication for CPNB was surgery (89.4%), most commonly orthopedic (78.8%). Mean CPNB duration was 7.2 days (median, 5.0; range, 1-81 days). Two cases (1.12%) of CPNBs developed signs of infection, both associated with femoral catheters. The infections were mild and necessitated catheter removal at days 10 and 13, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Nerve block catheter-associated infections are infrequent at our institution despite prolonged CPNB use. Both patients with infection had femoral catheters and prolonged catheter (≥ 10 days) use.

Long-term use of nerve block catheters in paediatric patients with cancer related pathologic fractures

We report three cases of children with osteosarcoma and pathologic fractures treated with long-term continuous nerve blocks for preoperative pain control. One patient with a left distal femoral diaphysis fracture had a femoral continuous nerve block catheter for 41 days without complications. Another with a fractured left proximal femoral shaft had three femoral continuous nerve block catheters for 33, 26 and 22 days respectively. The third patient, whose right proximal humerus was fractured, had a brachial plexus continuous nerve block catheter for 36 days without complication. In our experience, prolonged use of continuous nerve block is safe and effective in children with pathologic fractures for preoperative pain control.

Peripheral catheter techniques

With ultrasound, continuous peripheral nerve blocks (CPNBs) are one of the most recent developments in regional anesthesia in children. CPNBs are now used more widely in children because more suitable materials have been marketed, allowing complete, and prolonged postoperative pain control. Their use after orthopedic procedures in children and treatment for complex regional pain syndrome in adolescents has demonstrated the benefits. Perineural catheters have also shown their superiority over other techniques of continuous regional anesthesia in terms of side effects. The efficiency and the safety of these techniques may facilitate early ambulation with improved pain management, treatment at home with disposable pumps, and improved rehabilitation of children. Studies on large cohorts of patients published to date have failed to highlight any severe complications in their use compared with other adult studies. Accidents owing to systemic toxicity are very unlikely if the recommended maximum dose is not exceeded. The safety of continuous regional anesthesia techniques in children relies on the use of low-concentration l-enantiomer solutions (ropivacaine or levobupivacaine) accompanied by low plasma concentrations of local anesthetics, limiting the risk of systemic toxicity of these molecules. CPNB can ensure strong and lasting analgesia in hospital or at home.

Safety in pediatric regional anesthesia

The use of regional anesthesia is increasingly common in pediatric practice. This review reports the complications and risks in pediatric regional anesthesia. Few large studies reported incidence of complications. However, the different studies have shown that regional anesthesia, when performed properly, carried a very low risk of morbidity in appropriately selected infants and children. In addition, the use of ultrasound-guided peripheral nerve blockade has shown some promise toward increasing the safety profile of these already safe techniques.

A comparison of methods of post-operative analgesia in children undergoing limb reconstruction with circular frames

This retrospective study compared post-operative epidural analgesia (E), continuous peripheral nerve blocks (CPNB) and morphine infusion (M) in 68 children undergoing limb reconstruction with circular frames. The data collected included episodes of severe pain, post-operative duration of analgesia, requirement for top-up analgesia, number of osteotomies, side effects and complications. There was a significant difference between the number of episodes of severe pain in patients receiving a morphine infusion and those receiving epidurals or CPNB (M vs E, p < 0.0001; M vs CPNB, p = 0.018). The CPNB group was associated with the lowest incidence of episodes of severe pain and top-up analgesia. Epidural analgesia was associated with significantly more nausea and vomiting than morphine infusion (p = 0.053) and CPNB (p = 0.023). It also had a significantly higher incidence of motor blockade than CPNB (p < 0.01). We found that the most effective method of post-operative analgesia for children undergoing lower limb reconstruction was sciatic nerve catheterisation and continuous infusion.

Tips and tricks to facilitate ultrasound-guided placement of peripheral nerve catheters in children

AIM

To describe an approach to facilitate ultrasound (US)-guided placement of peripheral nerve catheters in children.

BACKGROUND

Continuous peripheral nerve blocks (CPNB) provide excellent surgical anesthesia and postoperative analgesia. However, catheters can be difficult to place, especially in children.

METHODS

Ten US-guided peripheral nerve catheters were placed and placement difficulties encountered were recorded. Four series of 15 consecutive US-guided CPNB were then performed, adding in each series one possible solution to each of the troubles previously encountered. Finally, all maneuvers were employed in the placement of 15 US-guided CPNB in children 3-10 years old and then followed clinically.

RESULTS

Initial difficulties encountered were as follows: (i) introducing the catheter, (ii) catheter tip visualization, (iii) length of catheter to be introduced, and (iv) catheter fixation and appropriate long-lasting dressing. The proposed facilitating procedure that addresses each of these difficulties is as follows: (i) three-hand technique: an assistant's hand holds the US transducer, the proceduralist anesthetist slightly withdraws and rotates the needle tip with one hand and advances the catheter with the other, (ii) needle visualization in long axis (LAX) whenever possible with catheter placed inside the needle and US guidance of spread of local anesthetic (LA) through the catheter, (iii) catheter advanced until resistance is found or up to a maximum of 5 cm, and (iv) subcutaneous tunneling of the catheter, Dermabond glue, and careful transparent dressing. All catheters in the last series were 100% effective during surgery and provided complete analgesia for ≥3 days without complications.

CONCLUSIONS

Continuous peripheral nerve blocks in children should be placed under US guidance in LAX whenever possible, with a three-hand technique and slightly withdrawing or rotating the needle tip to introduce the catheter, administering LA through the catheter, and performing subcutaneous tunneling and careful dressing.

Feasibility and efficacy of placement of continuous sciatic perineural catheters solely under ultrasound guidance in children: a descriptive study

BACKGROUND

Placement of sciatic catheters with ultrasound and stimulating catheters is known. Literature regarding catheter placements with only ultrasound is limited. We aimed to investigate the feasibility of performing continuous sciatic nerve block exclusively with ultrasound guidance and minimal equipment.

METHOD

Forty ASA 1 and 2 patients aged 8 months-10 years posted for congenital talipoequinovarus surgery were included in the study. Continuous sciatic catheters were placed under ultrasound guidance with 18- gauge Tuohy needle at the infragluteal fold. Then, 0.25% of bupivacaine 0.5 ml·kg(-1) bolus was injected followed by continuous infusion later. Half the volume of the drug was injected prior to catheter insertion to improve visibility. The sciatic nerve, needle tip and shaft, catheter tip and the drug spread were visualized. The efficacy of the block intraoperatively and postoperatively was evaluated.

RESULTS

The sciatic nerve, needle shaft, and tip were well visualized in all 40 patients. The catheter tip was seen in 72.5% of patients. The effect of block was complete intraoperatively and postoperatively. Clinically significant complications were absent.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that in children, continuous sciatic catheters can be accurately and efficaciously placed with minimal equipment with ultrasound alone.

Continuous central and perineural infusions for postoperative pain control in children

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Continuous infusion remains the technique of choice when there is a prolonged operation or intense postoperative pain is anticipated. Supplementing a general anesthesia with a nerve block can result in a pain-free awakening and postoperative analgesia without the potentially deleterious effects associated with parenteral opioids. The literature confirms the very low rate of complications and adverse effects of regional anesthesia in children.

RECENT FINDINGS

Clinicians need to be aware of the key points for performing a block and placing a catheter in children: good knowledge of anatomic and physiologic differences between adults and children is necessary; the use of newer local anesthetics, such as ropivacaine and levobupivacaine, increases the therapeutic window; and moreover it is mandatory to work with dedicated pediatric equipment.

SUMMARY

The introduction of high-resolution portable ultrasound brought a great advance for the pediatric anesthesiologists; ultrasound-guided visualization of anatomic structures, in fact, allows greater precision of needle and catheter placement, and confirmation that the drug is deposited in the site of choice. This article reviews the safety and efficacy of central and perineural continuous infusions for postoperative pain control in children.

Epidemiology and morbidity of regional anesthesia in children: a follow-up one-year prospective survey of the French-Language Society of Paediatric Anaesthesiologists (ADARPEF)

BACKGROUND

The French-Language Society of Paediatric Anaesthesiologists (ADARPEF) designed a 1-year prospective, multicenter and anonymous study to update both epidemiology and morbidity of regional anesthesia in children.

METHODS

From November 2005 to October 2006, data from participating hospitals were recorded using an identification form, a data recording form, and a complication form. Information collected included the characteristics of the hospitals, the number and type of regional anesthetics (RA), the age of the involved children as well as the incidence, and type of complications.

RESULTS

Data collected in 47 institutions included 104,612 pure general anesthesias (GAs), 29,870 GAs associated with regional blocks, and 1262 pure regional blocks. Central blocks accounted for 34% of all RA. Peripheral blocks (66%) were upper or lower limb blocks (29% of peripheral blocks), trunk blocks, and face blocks (71%). In children aged ≤3 years, the percentage of central blocks was similar to the peripheral ones (45% vs 55), while in older children, peripheral blocks were more than four times used than central ones. Complications (41 involving 40 patients) were rare and usually minor. They did not result in any sequelae. The study revealed an overall rate of complication of 0.12%; CI 95% [0.09-0.17], significantly six times higher for central than for peripheral blocks.

CONCLUSIONS

As a result of the low rate of complications, RA techniques have a good safety profile and can be used to provide postoperative analgesia. In addition, the results should encourage anesthesiologists to continue to use peripheral instead of central (including caudal) blocks as often as possible when appropriate.

Implementation of a standardized pain management in a pediatric surgery unit

Postoperative pain is still a major complication causing discomfort and significant suffering, especially for children. Therefore, every effort should be made to prevent pain and treat it effectively once it arises. Under-treatment of pediatric pain is often due to a lack of both knowledge about age-specific aspects of physiology and pharmacology and routine pain assessment. Factors for long term success require regularly assessing pain, as routinely as the other vital signs together with documentation of side effects. The fear of side effects mostly prevents the adequate usage of analgesics. Essential is selecting and establishing a simple concept for clinical routine involving a combination of non-pharmacological treatment strategies, non-opioid drugs, opioids and regional anesthesia.