Relationships between performance test and match-related physical performance parameters: A study in professional soccer players across three seasons

Maximum Strength and Power as Determinants of Match Skating Performance in Elite Youth Ice Hockey Players

ABSTRACT

Keiner, M, Kierot, M, Stendahl, M, Brauner, T, and Suchomel, TJ. Maximum strength and power as determinants of match skating performance in elite youth ice hockey players. J Strength Cond Res 38(6): 1090-1094, 2024-Maximum strength has a strong influence on speed-strength performances such as sprints and jumps. Important for sports practice is whether these findings are also reflected in game performance. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore the influence of maximum strength and power performance on linear on-ice skating performance in testing and during game play. A cross-sectional study was conducted, and 24 highly trained male youth ice hockey players participated. Jump performances (countermovement jump [CMJ], drop jumps), maximum strength (1 repetition maximum [1RM] squat and isometric trap bar pull [ITBP]), and on-ice linear sprints (15 m [LS15], 30 m [LS30], flying 15 m [FLY15]) were measured. Match performances (among others: peak skating speed) were collected of 4 regular league games using a local positioning system. Correlation coefficient and explained variance were calculated ( ρ ≤ 0.05). Correlations between maximum strength and jump with on-ice linear sprint performance showed 1-35% explained variance. Correlations between "off ice" test (CMJ, relative 1RM) and game data (peak skating speed) showed 22-30% explained variance, respectively, while ITBP and DJ missed significant level. Between linear sprint and game performance showed 15-59% explained variance. In this study, a clear influence of 1RM in squatting and CMJ performance on on-ice linear sprint as well as in-game peak skating speed was observed. These findings show that strength and jumping performance can be valuable tests within a comprehensive test battery and indicate the relevance of strength and jumping tasks within the regular exercise program to improve in-game skating performance.

Effects of horizontal compared to vertical-based plyometric jump training on semi-professional soccer player's performance

This study aimed to compare the effects of horizontal (HJ) and vertical (VJ)-based plyometric jump training on male semi-professional soccer player's performance (e.g., change-of-direction speed [5-0-5 test]; 10-m, 20-m, and 30-m linear sprint speed). A parallel-study design was conducted. Participants were organized into HJ (n = 10) or VJ (n = 9) during 12 weeks. Measures of athletic performance were obtained in four phases: (i) before and (ii) end of the pre-season, (iii) during (weeks 7th), and (iv) after the intervention. The within-group analysis revealed that both HJ and VJ improved change of direction ([Formula: see text] = 27.783; p < 0.001 ([Formula: see text] = 21.635; p < 0.001),), 10-m linear sprint time ([Formula: see text] = 28.576; p < 0.001), 20-m linear sprint time ([Formula: see text] = 28.969, p < 0.001), and 30-m linear sprint time ([Formula: see text] = 26.143; p < 0.001). Similarly, the VJ-group also imposed significant changes on 5-0-5 time, 10-m linear sprint time ([Formula: see text] = 25.787; p < 0.001), 20-m linear sprint time ([Formula: see text] = 24.333, p < 0.001), and 30-m linear sprint time ([Formula: see text] = 22.919; p < 0.001). Between-group analysis revealed no significant differences in any of the assessment moments. HJ and VJ plyometric jump training are effective for improving the change-of-direction and a linear sprint of semi-professional players with no difference between types of intervention.

The soccer season: performance variations and evolutionary trends

The physiological demands of soccer challenge the entire spectrum of the response capacity of the biological systems and fitness requirements of the players. In this review we examined variations and evolutionary trends in body composition, neuromuscular and endurance-related parameters, as well as in game-related physical parameters of professional players. Further, we explore aspects relevant for training monitoring and we reference how different training stimulus and situational variables (e.g., competition exposure) affect the physiological and performance parameters of players. Generally, improvements of small magnitude in non- (non-CMJ) and countermovement-based jumps (CMJBased) and in the sprint acceleration (ACCPhase) and maximal velocity phase (MVPhase) are observed from start of preparation phase (PPS) to beginning of competition phase (BCP). A greater magnitude of increases is observed in physiological and endurance performance measures within this period; moderate magnitude in sub-maximal intensity exercise (velocity at fixed blood lactate concentrations; V2-4mmol/l) and large magnitude in VO2max, maximal aerobic speed (MAS) and intense intermittent exercise performance (IE). In the middle of competition phase (MCP), small (CMJBased and ACCPhase), moderate (non-CMJ; MVPhase; VO2max; sub-maximal exercise) and large (MAS and IE) improvements were observed compared to PPS. In the end of competition period (ECP), CMJBased and MVPhase improve to a small extent with non-CMJ, and ACCPhase, VO2max, MAS, sub-maximal intensity exercise and IE revealing moderate increments compared to PPS. Although less investigated, there are generally observed alterations of trivial magnitude in neuromuscular and endurance-related parameters between in-season assessments; only substantial alterations are examined for IE and sub-maximal exercise performance (decrease and increase of small magnitude, respectively) from BCP to MCP and in VO2max and IE (decrements of small magnitude) from MCP to ECP. Match performance may vary during the season. Although, the variability between studies is clear for TD, VHSR and sprint, all the studies observed substantial increments in HSR between MCP and ECP. Finally, studies examining evolutionary trends by means of exercise and competition performance measures suggests of a heightened importance of neuromuscular factors. In conclusion, during the preseason players "recover" body composition profile and neuromuscular and endurance competitive capacity. Within in-season, and more robustly towards ECP, alterations in neuromuscular performance seem to be force-velocity dependent, and in some cases, physiological determinants and endurance performance may be compromised when considering other in-season moments. Importantly, there is a substantial variability in team responses that can be observed during in-season. Consequently, this informs on the need to both provide a regular training stimulus and adequate monitorization throughout the season.

The Influence of Maximum Squatting Strength on Jump and Sprint Performance: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of 492 Youth Soccer Players

This study aims to analyze the influence of relative strength performance, determined by parallel back squats (REL SQ), on 30 m sprinting (LS) and on jumping performance (squat [SJ], countermovement [CMJ]) in a large sample (n = 492) of elite youth soccer players. The soccer players were divided into subgroups based on their strength performance: strength level 1 (0.0−0.5 REL SQ), strength level 2 (>0.5−1.0 REL SQ), strength level 3 (>1.0 to 1.5 REL SQ), strength level 4 (>1.5 to 2.0 REL SQ), and strength level 5 (>2.0 REL SQ). The results of this study show that REL SQ explains 45−53% (r = |0.67−0.73|) of the variance of SJ, CMJ, and LS for the total sample. Strength levels 2−4 showed similar coefficients of correlation in jumping performance (r = |0.42−0.55|) and strength levels 2 and 3 in sprint performance (r = |0.41|). The respective extreme strength levels showed lower coefficients of correlation with the sprinting and jumping performance variables (r = |0.11−0.29|). No coefficients could be calculated for strength level 5 because no athlete achieved an appropriate strength level (>2.0 REL SQ). The data from this study show a clear influence of REL SQ on sprint and jump performance, even in a large sample.

Assessing the usefulness of submaximal exercise heart rates for monitoring cardiorespiratory fitness changes in elite youth soccer players

AIM

This study aimed to assess the value of monitoring fitness in elite youth soccer players (U15 to U19 age groups) by analyzing the concomitant changes in heart rate at submaximal intensity (HR12km/h) and the velocity at a lactate concentration of 4 mmol/l (v4mmol/l).

METHODS

Players were tested by means of an incremental treadmill test on two occasions during the summer pre-season in two consecutive seasons. Based on data from a total of 170 test comparisons from the U15 (n = 48 test comparisons), U16 (n = 40 test comparisons), U17 (n = 46 test comparisons), and U19 (n = 36 test comparisons) age groups, the agreement between substantial changes in HR12km/h and v4mmol/l was analyzed using the threshold combination of HR12km/h = 4.5% and v4mmol/l = 6.0%.

RESULTS

Results revealed 2% full mismatches, 36% partial agreements, and 62% full agreements for the whole sample in terms of fitness change interpretation between both variables. The respective values for the U15 to U19 age groups ranged between 0% and 5% full mismatches, 28-44% partial agreements, and 56-68% full agreements with no meaningful differences between age groups.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, our findings confirm the practical value of using HR12km/h to monitor fitness changes in elite youth soccer players when lactate sampling during incremental tests is not possible.

Match-related physical performance in professional soccer: Position or player specific?

The purpose of this study was to examine to what extent the physical match performance of professional soccer players is both position and player specific. First, official match data from the 2019/20 German Bundesliga season was used to search for players that met the inclusion criteria of playing a minimum of four entire matches in at least two different playing positions. Overall, 25 players met the criteria prior to the COVID-19 induced break, playing a minimum of eight matches. Second, the physical match performance of these players was analyzed separately for each position they played. The following four parameters were captured: total distance, high-intensity distance, sprinting distance, and accelerations. Third, the 25 players’ physical match performance data was then compared to normative data for each position they played to understand whether players adapted their physical performance (position dependent), or maintained their performance regardless of which position they were assigned to (position independent). When switching the position, the change in physical match performance of the respective players could be explained by 44–58% through the normative positional data. Moreover, there existed large individual differences in the way players adapted or maintained their performance when acting in different positions. Coaches and practitioners should be aware that some professional soccer players will likely incur differences in the composition of physical match performance when switching positions and therefore should pay special consideration for such differences in the training and recovery process of these players.

Associations between maximal strength, sprint, and jump height and match physical performance in high-level female football players

Studies on females' decisive physical components to physical match-play performance are sparse and only emphasize endurance tests. Thus, the influence of maximal strength and power on physical performance during match-play is currently unknown. The aim of this study was to assess the association between one repetition maximum (1RM) half squat strength, 5-, 10-, and 15-m sprint times, countermovement jump (CMJ) height, and physical high-intensity match-play performance in high-level female football players. Thirty-seven female high-level football players completed 1-2 football matches with physical performance measured by local positioning tracking. Correlations were assessed between physical match-play performance variables (total distance covered, running distance, high-intensity running distance, sprinting distance as well as acceleration and deceleration counts, and peak speed) and laboratory tests (half squat 1RM, 15-m sprint, and CMJ). We found no correlation between 1RM and physical match-play performance. Further, 10-m- and 15-m sprint time (r = -0.56, r = -0.56, p < 0.001) and CMJ jump height (r = 0.50, p < 0.01) strongly correlated with peak match speed. Further, there was a moderate correlation between 15-m sprint time and ACC (r = -0.43, p < 0.05). 5-m sprint time did not correlate with physical match-play performance. Laboratory-based sprint and jump performance, but not maximal half squat strength, showed moderate to large correlations with high-intensity physical match-play performance measures in high-level female football players.

Using Submaximal Exercise Heart Rate for Monitoring Cardiorespiratory Fitness Changes in Professional Soccer Players: A Replication Study

PURPOSE

To assess the value of monitoring changes in fitness in professional soccer players, using changes in heart rate at submaximal intensity (HR12km/h) over the velocity at a lactate concentration of 4 mmol/L (v4mmol/L). The authors reexamined (1) a range of threshold magnitudes, which may improve detecting substantial individual changes and (2) the agreement between changes in these 2 variables.

METHODS

On at least 2 occasions during different moments of the season, 97 professional soccer players from Germany (first, second, and fourth division) completed an incremental test to determine HR12km/h and v4mmol/L. Optimal thresholds for changes in HR12km/h and v4mmol/L were assessed, using various methods (eg, smallest worthwhile change + typical error [TE], successive reiterations approach). Agreement between both variable changes was examined for the whole sample (225 comparisons), 4 different subgroups (depending on the moment of the season), and in an individual over 6 years (n = 23 tests).

RESULTS

Changes of 4.5% and 6.0% for HR12km/h and v4mmol/L, respectively, were rated as optimal to indicate substantial changes in fitness. Depending on the (sub)groups analyzed, these thresholds yielded 0% to 2% full mismatches, 22% to 38% partial agreements, and 60% to 78% full agreements in terms of fitness change interpretation between both variables.

CONCLUSIONS

When lactate sampling during incremental tests is not possible, practitioners willing to monitor adult professional soccer players' (Germany; first, second, and fourth division) training status can confidently implement short, 3-minute submaximal runs, with 4.5% changes in HR12km/h being indicative of true substantial fitness changes, with 60% to 78% accuracy. Future studies should investigate the potential role of confounding factors of HR12km/h to improve changes in fitness prediction.

Endurance Capacities in Professional Soccer Players: Are Performance Profiles Position Specific?

The aim of this study was to investigate position-specific endurance performance of soccer players. 136 professional players competing in the 1st and 2nd division in Germany were divided into the positional groups goalkeepers (GK), central defenders (CD), wingers (WI), central midfielders (CM), and forwards (FW). All players performed an incremental treadmill test with blood lactate sampling until exhaustion with the following endurance parameters being obtained: Fixed aerobic threshold (v_2mmol/l), fixed anaerobic threshold (v_4mmol/l), individual aerobic threshold (v_LT), individual anaerobic threshold (v_IAT), and maximum velocity (v_max). Results revealed significant differences between GK and all outfield playing positions for all endurance parameters (p ≤ 0.03; ES 0.87–2.19). No significant differences among outfield playing positions were evident for any of the parameters. However, trends were found in favor of the CM compared to the WI (p = 0.11; ES = 0.68) and the FW (p = 0.06; ES = 0.47) relating to v_LT as well as in favor of the CM compared to the WI (p = 0.10; ES = 0.56) relating to v_IAT. Findings suggest that goalkeepers possess the lowest endurance capacity compared to other playing positions. While outfield players in general showed similar endurance performance, CM seem to possess the highest aerobic capacity of all positions as indicated by all lactate-based thresholds, however, with only small to moderate ES. These findings could lead one to question the appropriateness of current endurance training regimes to prepare all players adequately for their positional match-running demands. Indeed, endurance training of players should be specific to their match-running demands. However, it remains unknown to what extent these demands are position or player specific.

An Investigation into the Relationship Between Heart Rate Recovery in Small-Sided Games and Endurance Performance in Male, Semi-professional Soccer Players

BACKGROUND

The ability to recover in the shortest possible time plays an important role especially in intermittent sports such as soccer. Evidence suggests that a well-developed endurance performance has positive effects on the repeated-sprint ability and thus also on the short-term recovery. However, it has not been clarified whether these relationships still exist in a soccer-specific situation. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the ability of semi-professional soccer players to recover during standardized small-sided games (SSGs) as an endurance performance indicator.

METHODS

Eighteen male semi-professional soccer players (age, 23.5 ± 3.7 years) performed an incremental treadmill test (ITT) to determine their running velocity and heart rate at a fixed lactate threshold of 4 mmol L^-1 (v4). Two days later, the players carried out six bouts of 4 vs. 4 SSGs (duration, 90 s; load to rest ratio, 1:1). A GPS-based tracking system was used to determine distances covered at four fixed speed zones (i.e., < 7.2 km/h, 7.2-14.4 km/h, 14.4-19.8 km/h, > 19.8 km/h) and total distance covered during the SSGs. Furthermore, the frequency of occurrence of accelerations (> 1.54 m s^-2) was calculated. SSGs' internal load was quantified by average heart rate and blood lactate concentration after the SSGs. Their recovery ability was evaluated using heart rate recovery (HRR) after the last bout of the SSGs.

RESULTS

A very large correlation (r = - .91) with an explained variance of 84% was found between HRR and v4. Further, a better performance in the ITT was also related with a higher number of accelerations executed during SSGs (r = .60). The total distance and distances in predefined speed zones did not show any association to v4.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed a strong relationship between HRR after standardized 4 vs. 4 SSGs and the soccer players' endurance performance in a laboratory setting. Thus, besides being associated with endurance capacity, v4 seems sufficient to evaluate the sport-specific ability to recover in soccer players.

Physical Match Performance in Sub-elite Soccer Players - Introduction of a new Index

This investigation examined the position-specific physical performance in different locomotor categories and physiological demands concurrently in official games of sub-elite players and to present a new performance index (PI). Time-motion (distance, velocity, acceleration) and heart rate data of 55 soccer players were simultaneously captured via a GPS tracking system. The relationship between external and internal match-load (PI) was determined on the basis of heart rate, average velocity and acceleration. In contrast to the mean heart rate (85.2±3.2%, P=0.806, η_p²=0.03), the average total distance covered (9946±715 m) was largely affected by players' position (P<0.001, η_p²=0.63). Furthermore, a mixed design ANOVA showed a large interaction effect between position and locomotor category (P<0.001, η_p²=0.44). On average, PI was 1.57±0.37 m/min²/%, with notably lower values in the 2^nd half. The position-specific profiles already reported for higher leagues were also present in sub-elite soccer players. Despite lower values for total distance and smaller distances in the high-intensity zones (>14.4 km/h), internal loads were comparable to those observed in European top leagues. In comparison to a performance measure that ignores accelerations, PI was shown to be less dependent on the playing position and had higher variability. Consequently, PI is better suited to distinguish between players' performance.

Differences in Player Position Running Velocity at Lactate Thresholds Among Male Professional German Soccer Players

This study investigated the differences in running velocities at specific lactate thresholds among male German soccer players. One hundred fifty-two professional (3rd league: n = 78; 4th league: n = 74) male soccer players (mean ± SD; age: 24.7 ± 4.37 years, body mass: 80.8 ± 7.33 kg, body height: 1.83 ± 0.06 m) volunteered for the investigation. Players were categorized as goalkeepers, central defenders, central midfielders, wings and forward. Players completed a treadmill test, at incremental speeds, to determine running velocity at different blood lactate concentrations (v2 = 2 mmol/l; v4 = 4 mmol/l; and v6 = 6 mmol/l). In addition, the largest difference between positions for running velocity was found at the lactate threshold v2 (p = 0.005). The running data revealed that only goalkeepers had significantly lower velocities at the lactate thresholds compared to outfield players. The central midfielders showed the highest average performance level at the lactate thresholds (v2: 12.5 ± 1.20 km/h; v4: 15.2 ± 1.14 km/h; and v6: 16.6 ± 1.14 km/h). In conclusion, this study provides soccer and position-specific reference data for the running performance of male professional German soccer players to evaluate the endurance performance in a standardized way. In this context, future research should extend the database for the first and second leagues. Further research assessing running performance during competition matches over the entire season is required to validate the endurance test performance data.