1
|
Singh K, Sharma P, Jaiswal S, Mishra P, Maurya R, Muthusamy SK, Saharan MS, Jasrotia RS, Kumar J, Mishra S, Sheoran S, Singh GP, Angadi UB, Rai A, Tiwari R, Iquebal MA, Kumar D. Genome and transcriptome based comparative analysis of Tilletia indica to decipher the causal genes for pathogenicity of Karnal bunt in wheat. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2024; 24:676. [PMID: 39009989 PMCID: PMC11251232 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-024-04959-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/17/2024]
Abstract
Tilletia indica Mitra causes Karnal bunt (KB) in wheat by pathogenic dikaryophase. The present study is the first to provide the draft genomes of the dikaryon (PSWKBGD-3) and its two monosporidial lines (PSWKBGH-1 and 2) using Illumina and PacBio reads, their annotation and the comparative analyses among the three genomes by extracting polymorphic SSR markers. The trancriptome from infected wheat grains of the susceptible wheat cultivar WL711 at 24 h, 48h, and 7d after inoculation of PSWKBGH-1, 2 and PSWKBGD-3 were also isolated. Further, two transcriptome analyses were performed utilizing T. indica transcriptome to extract dikaryon genes responsible for pathogenesis, and wheat transcriptome to extract wheat genes affected by dikaryon involved in plant-pathogen interaction during progression of KB in wheat. A total of 54, 529, and 87 genes at 24hai, 48hai, and 7dai, respectively were upregulated in dikaryon stage while 21, 35, and 134 genes of T. indica at 24hai, 48hai, and 7dai, respectively, were activated only in dikaryon stage. While, a total of 23, 17, and 52 wheat genes at 24hai, 48hai, and 7dai, respectively were upregulated due to the presence of dikaryon stage only. The results obtained during this study have been compiled in a web resource called TiGeR ( http://backlin.cabgrid.res.in/tiger/ ), which is the first genomic resource for T. indica cataloguing genes, genomic and polymorphic SSRs of the three T. indica lines, wheat and T. indica DEGs as well as wheat genes affected by T. indica dikaryon along with the pathogenecity related proteins of T. indica dikaryon during incidence of KB at different time points. The present study would be helpful to understand the role of dikaryon in plant-pathogen interaction during progression of KB, which would be helpful to manage KB in wheat, and to develop KB-resistant wheat varieties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kalpana Singh
- Division of Agricultural Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India
- Department of Bioinformatics, College of Animal Biotechnology, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, India
| | - Pradeep Sharma
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
| | - Sarika Jaiswal
- Division of Agricultural Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Pallavi Mishra
- Division of Agricultural Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Ranjeet Maurya
- Division of Agricultural Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Senthilkumar K Muthusamy
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
- ICAR-Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - M S Saharan
- ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Rahul Singh Jasrotia
- Division of Agricultural Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Jitender Kumar
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
| | - Shefali Mishra
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
| | - Sonia Sheoran
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
| | - G P Singh
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Haryana, India
| | - U B Angadi
- Division of Agricultural Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Anil Rai
- Division of Agricultural Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Ratan Tiwari
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Haryana, India.
| | - Mir Asif Iquebal
- Division of Agricultural Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India.
| | - Dinesh Kumar
- Division of Agricultural Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Manakkatt HM, Gurjar MS, Saharan MS, Aggarwal R. Expression analysis of genes involved in teliospores germination of Tilletia indica inciting Karnal bunt of wheat. Mol Biol Rep 2024; 51:726. [PMID: 38856802 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-024-09690-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Karnal bunt of wheat is an important quarantine disease, incited by Tilletia indica. It limits India's trade in wheat export. The teliospores are major source of inoculum to initiate and spread the Karnal bunt disease. The study aimed to identify the germination-related genes in the teliospores of T. indica. METHODS AND RESULTS The candidate genes in the teliospores germination were identified through the differential gene expression analysis with suitable bioinformatics analysis. Keeping in soil-borne nature of fungi, the teliospores of T. indica (2015 and 2018) were subjected to the qPCR analysis. 20 candidate genes were identified having role in germination of teliospores of T. indica. Twenty genes, viz. Ti9297 (9.31, 7.87-fold), Ti8696 (5.13, 6.54-fold), Ti7699 (8.9, 7.7-fold), Ti7858 (10.33, 6.21-fold), Ti7954 (7.46, 5.54-fold), Ti7739 (5.46, 6.46-fold), Ti9665 (10.74, 7.64-fold), Ti9335 (6.75, 4.36-fold), Ti8396 (9.35, 7.72-fold), Ti8126 (8.87, 11.31-fold), Ti7326 (6.04, 7.7-fold), Ti10208 (13.83, 5.81-fold), Ti12356 (7.83, 8.02-fold), Ti14271 (9.98, 6.32-fold), Ti9234 (11.2, 8.72-fold), Ti 8876 (6.47, 3.55-fold), Ti 10,606 (4.97, 2.35-fold), Ti7758 (10.33, 8.78-fold), Ti4692 (6.89, 9.88-fold), and Ti3932 (5.77, 4.5-fold) were found highly expressed in the germinating teliospores of 2015 and 2018, respectively. Eight genes (Ti508, Ti4152, Ti5346, Ti2375, Ti3739, Ti1134, Ti4399, and Ti4422) were downregulated in the germinating teliospores but these eight genes were showed higher expression in the dormant teliospores. CONCLUSIONS Twenty candidate genes were upregulated in the germinating teliospores are supposed to be involved in the process of germination. Eight genes were downregulated which were related to the process of the dormancy of teliospores. The study will be helpful to devise the newer management strategies for Karnal bunt disease of wheat.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haritha Mohan Manakkatt
- Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110012, India
- ICAR-Mahatma Gandhi Integrated Farming Research Institute, Piprakothi, Motihari, Bihar, 845429, India
| | - Malkhan Singh Gurjar
- Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110012, India.
| | - Mahender Singh Saharan
- Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110012, India
| | - Rashmi Aggarwal
- Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, 110012, India
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Liang J, Yin D, Shu X, Xiang T, Zhang C, Li H, Wang A. Integrated Genome Sequencing and Transcriptome Analysis Identifies Candidate Pathogenicity Genes from Ustilago crameri. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:82. [PMID: 38276028 PMCID: PMC10821473 DOI: 10.3390/jof10010082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Ustilago crameri is a pathogenic basidiomycete fungus that causes foxtail millet kernel smut (FMKS), a devastating grain disease in most foxtail-millet-growing regions of the world. Here, we report an assembled high-quality genome sequence of U. crameri strain SCZ-6 isolated from the diseased grains of foxtail millet in Changzhi, Shanxi Province, China. The genome size is 19.55 Mb, consisting of 73 contigs (N50 = 840,209 bp) with a G + C content of 54.09%, and encoding 6576 predicted genes and 6486 genes supported by RNA-seq. Evolutionarily, U. crameri lies close to the barley smut U. hordei, and an obvious co-linearity was observed between these two smut fungi. We annotated the genome of U. crameri strain SCZ-6 using databases, identifying 1827 pathogen-host interaction (PHI)-associated genes, 1324 genes encoding fungal virulence factors, 259 CAZy-related genes, 80 genes encoding transporters, and 206 putative cytochrome P450 genes; their expression profiles at different inoculation time points were also detected. Additionally, 70 candidate pathogen effectors were identified according to their expression patterns and predicted functions. In summary, our results provide important insights into the pathogenic mechanisms of the pathogenesis-related genes of U. crameri and a robust foundation for further investigation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan Liang
- College of Plant Protection, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (J.L.); (X.S.); (T.X.); (C.Z.); (H.L.)
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Desuo Yin
- Food Crop Research Institute, Hubei Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Wuhan 430064, China;
| | - Xinyue Shu
- College of Plant Protection, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (J.L.); (X.S.); (T.X.); (C.Z.); (H.L.)
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Ting Xiang
- College of Plant Protection, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (J.L.); (X.S.); (T.X.); (C.Z.); (H.L.)
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
| | - Chao Zhang
- College of Plant Protection, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (J.L.); (X.S.); (T.X.); (C.Z.); (H.L.)
| | - Honglian Li
- College of Plant Protection, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (J.L.); (X.S.); (T.X.); (C.Z.); (H.L.)
| | - Aijun Wang
- College of Plant Protection, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China; (J.L.); (X.S.); (T.X.); (C.Z.); (H.L.)
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Gurjar MS, Kumar TPJ, Shakouka MA, Saharan MS, Rawat L, Aggarwal R. Draft genome sequencing of Tilletia caries inciting common bunt of wheat provides pathogenicity-related genes. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1283613. [PMID: 38033590 PMCID: PMC10684912 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1283613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Common bunt of wheat caused by Tilletia caries is an important disease worldwide. The T. caries TC1_MSG genome was sequenced using the Illumina HiSeq 2500 and Nanopore ONT platforms. The Nanopore library was prepared using the ligation sequencing kit SQK-LSK110 to generate approximately 24 GB for sequencing. The assembly size of 38.18 Mb was generated with a GC content of 56.10%. The whole genome shotgun project was deposited at DDBJ/ENA/GenBank under the accession number JALUTQ000000000. Forty-six contigs were obtained with N50 of 1,798,756 bp. In total, 10,698 genes were predicted in the assembled genome. Out of 10,698 genes, 10,255 genes were predicted significantly in the genome. The repeat sequences made up approximately 1.57% of the genome. Molecular function, cellular components, and biological processes for predicted genes were mapped into the genome. In addition, repeat elements in the genome were assessed. In all, 0.89% of retroelements were observed, followed by long terminal repeat elements (0.86%) in the genome. In simple sequence repeat (SSR) analysis, 8,582 SSRs were found in the genome assembly. The trinucleotide SSR type (3,703) was the most abundant. Few putative secretory signal peptides and pathogenicity-related genes were predicted. The genomic information of T. caries will be valuable in understanding the pathogenesis mechanism as well as developing new methods for the management of the common bunt disease of wheat.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Malkhan Singh Gurjar
- Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | | | - Mohamad Ayham Shakouka
- Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Mahender Singh Saharan
- Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Laxmi Rawat
- College of Hill Agriculture, VCSG Uttarakhand University of Horticulture and Forestry, Ranichauri, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Rashmi Aggarwal
- Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Wang A, Shu X, Xu D, Jiang Y, Liang J, Yi X, Zhu J, Yang F, Jiao C, Zheng A, Yin D, Li P. Understanding the Rice Fungal Pathogen Tilletia horrida from Multiple Perspectives. RICE (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2022; 15:64. [PMID: 36522490 PMCID: PMC9755434 DOI: 10.1186/s12284-022-00612-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Rice kernel smut (RKS), caused by the fungus Tilletia horrida, has become a major disease in rice-growing areas worldwide, especially since the widespread cultivation of high-yielding hybrid rice varieties. The disease causes a significant yield loss during the production of rice male sterile lines by producing masses of dark powdery teliospores. This review mainly summarizes the pathogenic differentiation, disease cycle, and infection process of the T. horrida, as well as the decoding of the T. horrida genome, functional genomics, and effector identification. We highlight the identification and characterization of virulence-related pathways and effectors of T. horrida, which could foster a better understanding of the rice-T. horrida interaction and help to elucidate its pathogenicity molecular mechanisms. The multiple effective disease control methods for RKS are also discussed, included chemical fungicides, the mining of resistant rice germplasms/genes, and the monitoring and early warning signs of this disease in field settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aijun Wang
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.
| | - Xinyue Shu
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Deze Xu
- Food Crop Research Institute, Hubei Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Yuqi Jiang
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Juan Liang
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaoqun Yi
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jianqing Zhu
- Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Feng Yang
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Chunhai Jiao
- Food Crop Research Institute, Hubei Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Aiping Zheng
- College of Agronomy, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Desuo Yin
- Food Crop Research Institute, Hubei Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Wuhan, China.
| | - Ping Li
- Rice Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Gurjar MS, Jain S, Aggarwal R, Saharan MS, Kumar TPJ, Kharbikar L. Transcriptome Analysis of Wheat- Tilletia indica Interaction Provides Defense and Pathogenesis-Related Genes. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:3061. [PMID: 36432790 PMCID: PMC9698794 DOI: 10.3390/plants11223061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Karnal bunt (Tilletia indica Mitra) is an internationally quarantined disease of wheat. Until now, very little information has been available on the molecular basis of resistance and pathogenicity of T. indica. To investigate the molecular basis of host−pathogen interaction, the transcriptome of T. indica inoculated resistant (HD29) and susceptible (WH542) genotypes of wheat were analyzed. Approximately 58 million reads were generated using RNA sequencing by the Illumina NextSeq500 platform. These sequence reads were aligned to a reference genome of wheat to compare the expression level of genes in resistant and susceptible genotypes. The high-quality reads were deposited in the NCBI SRA database (SRP159223). More than 80,000 genes were expressed in both the resistant and susceptible wheat genotypes. Of these, 76,088 were commonly expressed genes, including 3184 significantly upregulated and 1778 downregulated genes. Four thousand one hundred thirteen and 5604 genes were exclusively expressed in susceptible and resistant genotypes, respectively. Based on the significance, 503 genes were upregulated and 387 genes were downregulated. Using gene ontology, the majority of coding sequences were associated with response to stimuli, stress, carbohydrate metabolism, developmental process, and catalytic activity. Highly differentially expressed genes (integral component of membrane, exonuclease activity, nucleic acid binding, DNA binding, metal ion binding) were validated in resistant and susceptible genotypes using qPCR analysis and similar expression levels were found in RNA-Seq. Apart from the wheat, the mapping of T. indica was 7.07% and 7.63% of resistant and susceptible hosts, respectively, upon infection, which revealed significant pathogenesis-related genes. This first study provided in-depth information and new insights into wheat−T. indica interaction for managing Karnal bunt disease of wheat.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Malkhan Singh Gurjar
- Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India
| | - Shekhar Jain
- Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Mandsaur University, Mandsaur 458001, India
| | - Rashmi Aggarwal
- Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India
| | - Mahender Singh Saharan
- Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India
| | | | - Lalit Kharbikar
- Biotechnology Section, ICAR–National Institute of Biotic Stress Management, Raipur 493225, India
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Sedaghatjoo S, Mishra B, Forster MK, Becker Y, Keilwagen J, Killermann B, Thines M, Karlovsky P, Maier W. Comparative genomics reveals low levels of inter- and intraspecies diversity in the causal agents of dwarf and common bunt of wheat and hint at conspecificity of Tilletia caries and T. laevis. IMA Fungus 2022; 13:11. [PMID: 35672841 PMCID: PMC9172201 DOI: 10.1186/s43008-022-00098-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractTilletia caries and T. laevis, which are the causal agents of common bunt, as well as T. controversa, which causes dwarf bunt of wheat, threaten especially organic wheat farming. The three closely related fungal species differ in their teliospore morphology and partially in their physiology and infection biology. The gene content as well as intraspecies variation in these species and the genetic basis of their separation is unknown. We sequenced the genome of four T. caries, five T. controversa, and two T. laevis and extended this dataset with five publicly available ones. The genomes of the three species displayed microsynteny with up to 94.3% pairwise aligned regions excluding repetitive regions. The majority of functionally characterized genes involved in pathogenicity, life cycle, and infection of corn smut, Ustilago maydis, were found to be absent or poorly conserved in the draft genomes and the biosynthetic pathway for trimethylamine in Tilletia spp. could be different from bacteria. Overall, 75% of the identified protein-coding genes comprising 84% of the total predicted carbohydrate utilizing enzymes, 72.5% putatively secreted proteins, and 47.4% of effector-like proteins were conserved and shared across all 16 isolates. We predicted nine highly identical secondary metabolite biosynthesis gene clusters comprising in total 62 genes in all species and none were species-specific. Less than 0.1% of the protein-coding genes were species-specific and their function remained mostly unknown. Tilletia controversa had the highest intraspecies genetic variation, followed by T. caries and the lowest in T. laevis. Although the genomes of the three species are very similar, employing 241 single copy genes T. controversa was phylogenetically distinct from T. caries and T. laevis, however these two could not be resolved as individual monophyletic groups. This was in line with the genome-wide number of single nucleotide polymorphisms and small insertions and deletions. Despite the conspicuously different teliospore ornamentation of T. caries and T. laevis, a high degree of genomic identity and scarcity of species-specific genes indicate that the two species could be conspecific.
Collapse
|
8
|
Sharma P, Chauhan R, Pande V, Basu T, Rajesh, Kumar A. Rapid sensing ofTilletia indica - Teliospore in wheat extractby apiezoelectric label free immunosensor. Bioelectrochemistry 2022; 147:108175. [PMID: 35749887 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2022.108175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
'Tilletia indica', a fungal pathogen causes Karnal bunt disease in wheat. It has been renowned as a quarantine pest in more than 50 countries, therefore, urged a threat to wheat in the international market. To date, conventional methods employed to detect the disease involve the tentative identification of spores (teliospores) based on morphology. For effective and specific disease control, it is essential to get the specific protein of the analyte (teliospore) to target. In present study, a label-free immunosensor has been developed to detect Karnal bunt disease. A specifically synthesized anti-teliosporic monoclonal antibody (mAb) was immobilized on a self-assembled monolayer of 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid (11-MUA) to detect teliospore. All modified electrodes were morphologically characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy(AFM), Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FT-IR) techniques and analytically characterized by quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) and cyclic voltammetry (CV). The linearity range was 19 pg mL-1-10 ng mL-1, while the detection limit (LOD) was 4.4 pg mL-1 and 12.5 pg mL-1, respectively. The stability, reproducibility, and repeatability of the immunoelectrode was examined by CV, and found stable upto 18 days with negligible variation. The binding affinity (association constant (Ka)) of the developed immunoelectrode was 1.9 × 10-2 ng mL-1. The real sample has been tested in spiked wheat samples and found about 95-103 % recovery with 2.8-4.4 % relative error.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Kumaun University, Bhimtal Campus, Bhimtal, Nainital, Uttarakhand, 263136, India; Department of Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, College of Basic Sciences & Humanities, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pant Nagar 263145, Uttarakhand, India.
| | - Ruchika Chauhan
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, College of Basic Sciences & Humanities, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pant Nagar 263145, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Veena Pande
- Department of Biotechnology, Kumaun University, Bhimtal Campus, Bhimtal, Nainital, Uttarakhand, 263136, India
| | - Tinku Basu
- Amity Centre for Nanomedicine, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida 201303, India
| | - Rajesh
- CSIR- National Physical Laboratory, Dr. K.S. Krishnan Marg, New Delhi 110012, India
| | - Anil Kumar
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering, College of Basic Sciences & Humanities, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pant Nagar 263145, Uttarakhand, India; Director Education, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhansi 284003, India.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Shakouka MA, Gurjar MS, Aggarwal R, Saharan MS, Gogoi R, Bainsla Kumar N, Agarwal S, Kumar TPJ, Bayaa B, Khatib F. Genome-Wide Association Mapping of Virulence Genes in Wheat Karnal Bunt Fungus Tilletia indica Using Double Digest Restriction-Site Associated DNA-Genotyping by Sequencing Approach. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:852727. [PMID: 35633675 PMCID: PMC9139842 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.852727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tilletia indica is a quarantine fungal pathogen that poses a serious biosecurity threat to wheat-exporting countries. Acquiring genetic data for the pathogenicity characters of T. indica is still a challenge for wheat breeders and geneticists. In the current study, double digest restriction-site associated-DNA genotyping by sequencing was carried out for 39 T. indica isolates collected from different locations in India. The generated libraries upon sequencing were with 3,346,759 raw reads on average, and 151 x 2 nucleotides read length. The obtained bases per read ranged from 87 Mb in Ti 25 to 1,708 Mb in Ti 39, with 505 Mb on average per read. Trait association mapping was performed using 41,473 SNPs, infection phenotyping data, population structure, and Kinship matrix, to find single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) linked to virulence genes. Population structure analysis divided the T. indica population in India into three subpopulations with genetic mixing in each subpopulation. However, the division was not in accordance with the degree of virulence. Trait association mapping revealed the presence of 13 SNPs associated with virulence. Using sequences analysis tools, one gene (g4132) near a significant SNP was predicted to be an effector, and its relative expression was assessed and found upregulated upon infection.
Collapse
|
10
|
Centenary of Soil and Air Borne Wheat Karnal Bunt Disease Research: A Review. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10111152. [PMID: 34827145 PMCID: PMC8615050 DOI: 10.3390/biology10111152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2021] [Revised: 04/04/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Karnal bunt (KB) of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), known as partial bunt has its origin in Karnal, India and is caused by Tilletia indica (Ti). Its incidence had grown drastically since late 1960s from northwestern India to northern India in early 1970s. It is a seed, air and soil borne pathogen mainly affecting common wheat, durum wheat, triticale and other related species. The seeds become inedible, inviable and infertile with the precedence of trimethylamine secreted by teliospores in the infected seeds. Initially the causal pathogen was named Tilletia indica but was later renamed Neovossia indica. The black powdered smelly spores remain viable for years in soil, wheat straw and farmyard manure as primary sources of inoculum. The losses reported were as high as 40% in India and also the cumulative reduction of national farm income in USA was USD 5.3 billion due to KB. The present review utilizes information from literature of the past 100 years, since 1909, to provide a comprehensive and updated understanding of KB, its causal pathogen, biology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, etc. Next generation sequencing (NGS) is gaining popularity in revolutionizing KB genomics for understanding and improving agronomic traits like yield, disease tolerance and disease resistance. Genetic resistance is the best way to manage KB, which may be achieved through detection of genes/quantitative trait loci (QTLs). The genome-wide association studies can be applied to reveal the association mapping panel for understanding and obtaining the KB resistance locus on the wheat genome, which can be crossed with elite wheat cultivars globally for a diverse wheat breeding program. The review discusses the current NGS-based genomic studies, assembly, annotations, resistant QTLs, GWAS, technology landscape of diagnostics and management of KB. The compiled exhaustive information can be beneficial to the wheat breeders for better understanding of incidence of disease in endeavor of quality production of the crop.
Collapse
|
11
|
Filho JAF, Rosolen RR, Almeida DA, de Azevedo PHC, Motta MLL, Aono AH, dos Santos CA, Horta MAC, de Souza AP. Trends in biological data integration for the selection of enzymes and transcription factors related to cellulose and hemicellulose degradation in fungi. 3 Biotech 2021; 11:475. [PMID: 34777932 PMCID: PMC8548487 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-021-03032-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungi are key players in biotechnological applications. Although several studies focusing on fungal diversity and genetics have been performed, many details of fungal biology remain unknown, including how cellulolytic enzymes are modulated within these organisms to allow changes in main plant cell wall compounds, cellulose and hemicellulose, and subsequent biomass conversion. With the advent and consolidation of DNA/RNA sequencing technology, different types of information can be generated at the genomic, structural and functional levels, including the gene expression profiles and regulatory mechanisms of these organisms, during degradation-induced conditions. This increase in data generation made rapid computational development necessary to deal with the large amounts of data generated. In this context, the origination of bioinformatics, a hybrid science integrating biological data with various techniques for information storage, distribution and analysis, was a fundamental step toward the current state-of-the-art in the postgenomic era. The possibility of integrating biological big data has facilitated exciting discoveries, including identifying novel mechanisms and more efficient enzymes, increasing yields, reducing costs and expanding opportunities in the bioprocess field. In this review, we summarize the current status and trends of the integration of different types of biological data through bioinformatics approaches for biological data analysis and enzyme selection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jaire A. Ferreira Filho
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering (CBMEG), University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP Brazil
| | - Rafaela R. Rosolen
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering (CBMEG), University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP Brazil
| | - Deborah A. Almeida
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering (CBMEG), University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP Brazil
| | - Paulo Henrique C. de Azevedo
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering (CBMEG), University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP Brazil
| | - Maria Lorenza L. Motta
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering (CBMEG), University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP Brazil
| | - Alexandre H. Aono
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering (CBMEG), University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP Brazil
| | - Clelton A. dos Santos
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering (CBMEG), University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP Brazil
- Brazilian Biorenewables National Laboratory (LNBR), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), Campinas, SP Brazil
| | - Maria Augusta C. Horta
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering (CBMEG), University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP Brazil
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP Brazil
| | - Anete P. de Souza
- Center for Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering (CBMEG), University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP Brazil
- Department of Plant Biology, Institute of Biology, UNICAMP, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP 13083-875 Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Sedaghatjoo S, Forster MK, Niessen L, Karlovsky P, Killermann B, Maier W. Development of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for the detection of Tilletia controversa based on genome comparison. Sci Rep 2021; 11:11611. [PMID: 34078985 PMCID: PMC8172862 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-91098-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Tilletia controversa causing dwarf bunt of wheat is a quarantine pathogen in several countries. Therefore, its specific detection is of great phytosanitary importance. Genomic regions routinely used for phylogenetic inferences lack suitable polymorphisms for the development of species-specific markers. We therefore compared 21 genomes of six Tilletia species to identify DNA regions that were unique and conserved in all T. controversa isolates and had no or limited homology to other Tilletia species. A loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for T. controversa was developed based on one of these DNA regions. The specificity of the assay was verified using 223 fungal samples comprising 43 fungal species including 11 Tilletia species, in particular 39 specimens of T. controversa, 92 of T. caries and 40 of T. laevis, respectively. The assay specifically amplified genomic DNA of T. controversa from pure cultures and teliospores. Only Tilletia trabutii generated false positive signals. The detection limit of the LAMP assay was 5 pg of genomic DNA per reaction. A test performance study that included five laboratories in Germany resulted in 100% sensitivity and 97.7% specificity of the assay. Genomic regions, specific to common bunt (Tilletia caries and Tilletia laevis together) are also provided.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Somayyeh Sedaghatjoo
- Institute for Epidemiology and Pathogen Diagnostics, Julius Kühn Institute (JKI) - Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Messeweg 11-12, 38104, Braunschweig, Germany.
| | - Monika K Forster
- Institute for Crop Science and Plant Breeding, Bavarian State Research Center for Agriculture, Vöttinger Straße 38, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Ludwig Niessen
- Chair of Technical Microbiology, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, Gregor-Mendel-Str. 4, 85454, Freising, Germany
| | - Petr Karlovsky
- Molecular Phytopathology and Mycotoxin Research, University of Goettingen, Grisebachstrasse 6, 37077, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Berta Killermann
- Institute for Crop Science and Plant Breeding, Bavarian State Research Center for Agriculture, Vöttinger Straße 38, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Maier
- Institute for Epidemiology and Pathogen Diagnostics, Julius Kühn Institute (JKI) - Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Messeweg 11-12, 38104, Braunschweig, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Gurjar MS, Aggarwal R, Jain S, Sharma S, Singh J, Gupta S, Agarwal S, Saharan MS. Multilocus Sequence Typing and Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Analysis in Tilletia indica Isolates Inciting Karnal Bunt of Wheat. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7020103. [PMID: 33540499 PMCID: PMC7912946 DOI: 10.3390/jof7020103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Karnal bunt of wheat is an internationally quarantined disease affecting trade, quality, and production of wheat. During 2015–2016, a severe outbreak of Karnal bunt disease occurred in north-western plain zone of India. The present study was undertaken to decipher genetic variations in Indian isolates of Tilletia indica collected from different locations. Seven multilocus sequence fragments were selected to differentiate and characterize these T. indica isolates. A phylogenetic tree constructed based on pooled sequences of actin-related protein 2 (ARP2), β-tubulin (TUB), eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3 subunit A (EIF3A), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), histone 2B (H2B), phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK), and serine/threonine-protein kinase (STPK) showed that isolate KB-11 (Kaithal, Haryana) was highly conserved as it was located in cluster 1 and has the maximum sequence similarity with the reference strain. Other isolates in cluster 1 included KB-16 and KB-17, both from Uttar Pradesh, and KB-19 from Haryana. Isolates KB-07 (Jind, Haryana) and KB-18 (Mujaffar Nagar, Uttar Pradesh) were the most diverse and grouped in a subgroup of cluster 2. Maximum numbers of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (675) were in the PGK gene across the T. indica isolates. The minimum numbers of SNPs (67) were in KB-11 (Kaithal, Haryana), while the maximum number of SNPs (165) was identified in KB-18, followed by 164 SNPs in KB-14. KB-18 isolate was found to be the most diverse amongst all T. indica isolates. This first study on multilocus sequence typing (MLST) revealed that the population of T. indica was highly diverse.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Malkhan Singh Gurjar
- Fungal Molecular Biology Laboratory, Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India; (R.A.); (S.S.); (J.S.); (S.G.); (S.A.); (M.S.S.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Rashmi Aggarwal
- Fungal Molecular Biology Laboratory, Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India; (R.A.); (S.S.); (J.S.); (S.G.); (S.A.); (M.S.S.)
| | - Shekhar Jain
- Department of Biotechnology, Mandsaur University, Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh 45800, India;
| | - Sapna Sharma
- Fungal Molecular Biology Laboratory, Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India; (R.A.); (S.S.); (J.S.); (S.G.); (S.A.); (M.S.S.)
| | - Jagmohan Singh
- Fungal Molecular Biology Laboratory, Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India; (R.A.); (S.S.); (J.S.); (S.G.); (S.A.); (M.S.S.)
| | - Sangeeta Gupta
- Fungal Molecular Biology Laboratory, Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India; (R.A.); (S.S.); (J.S.); (S.G.); (S.A.); (M.S.S.)
| | - Shweta Agarwal
- Fungal Molecular Biology Laboratory, Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India; (R.A.); (S.S.); (J.S.); (S.G.); (S.A.); (M.S.S.)
| | - Mahender Singh Saharan
- Fungal Molecular Biology Laboratory, Division of Plant Pathology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012, India; (R.A.); (S.S.); (J.S.); (S.G.); (S.A.); (M.S.S.)
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Wang D, Peng C, Zheng X, Chang L, Xu B, Tong Z. Secretome Analysis of the Banana Fusarium Wilt Fungi Foc R1 and Foc TR4 Reveals a New Effector OASTL Required for Full Pathogenicity of Foc TR4 in Banana. Biomolecules 2020; 10:E1430. [PMID: 33050283 PMCID: PMC7601907 DOI: 10.3390/biom10101430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Banana Fusarium wilt (BFW), which is one of the most important banana diseases worldwide, is mainly caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense tropic race 4 (Foc TR4). In this study, we conducted secretome analysis of Foc R1 and Foc TR4 and discovered a total of 120 and 109 secretory proteins (SPs) from Foc R1 cultured alone or with banana roots, respectively, and 129 and 105 SPs respectively from Foc TR4 cultured under the same conditions. Foc R1 and Foc TR4 shared numerous SPs associated with hydrolase activity, oxidoreductase activity, and transferase activity. Furthermore, in culture with banana roots, Foc R1 and Foc TR4 secreted many novel SPs, of which approximately 90% (Foc R1; 57/66; Foc TR4; 50/55) were unconventional SPs without signal peptides. Comparative analysis of SPs in Foc R1 and Foc TR4 revealed that Foc TR4 not only generated more specific SPs but also had a higher proportion of SPs involved in various metabolic pathways, such as phenylalanine metabolism and cysteine and methionine metabolism. The cysteine biosynthesis enzyme O-acetylhomoserine (thiol)-lyase (OASTL) was the most abundant root inducible Foc TR4-specific SP. In addition, knockout of the OASTL gene did not affect growth of Foc TR4; but resulted in the loss of pathogenicity in banana 'Brazil'. We speculated that OASTL functions in banana by interfering with the biosynthesis of cysteine, which is the precursor of an enormous number of sulfur-containing defense compounds. Overall, our studies provide a basic understanding of the SPs in Foc R1 and Foc TR4; including a novel effector in Foc TR4.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dan Wang
- Institute of Tropical Bioscience and Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 571101, China; (D.W.); (C.P.); (X.Z.); (L.C.)
- Hainan Key Laboratory for Protection and Utilization of Tropical Bioresources, Hainan Institute for Tropical Agricultural Resources, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 571101, China
| | - Cunzhi Peng
- Institute of Tropical Bioscience and Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 571101, China; (D.W.); (C.P.); (X.Z.); (L.C.)
- Hainan Key Laboratory for Protection and Utilization of Tropical Bioresources, Hainan Institute for Tropical Agricultural Resources, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 571101, China
| | - Xingmei Zheng
- Institute of Tropical Bioscience and Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 571101, China; (D.W.); (C.P.); (X.Z.); (L.C.)
- Hainan Key Laboratory for Protection and Utilization of Tropical Bioresources, Hainan Institute for Tropical Agricultural Resources, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 571101, China
| | - Lili Chang
- Institute of Tropical Bioscience and Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 571101, China; (D.W.); (C.P.); (X.Z.); (L.C.)
- Hainan Key Laboratory for Protection and Utilization of Tropical Bioresources, Hainan Institute for Tropical Agricultural Resources, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 571101, China
| | - Bingqiang Xu
- Haikou Experimental Station (Institute of Tropical Fruit Tree Research) Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 571101, China
- Key Laboratory of Banana Genetics and Improvement, Haikou 571101, China
| | - Zheng Tong
- Institute of Tropical Bioscience and Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 571101, China; (D.W.); (C.P.); (X.Z.); (L.C.)
- Hainan Key Laboratory for Protection and Utilization of Tropical Bioresources, Hainan Institute for Tropical Agricultural Resources, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 571101, China
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Bishnoi SK, He X, Phuke RM, Kashyap PL, Alakonya A, Chhokar V, Singh RP, Singh PK. Karnal Bunt: A Re-Emerging Old Foe of Wheat. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:569057. [PMID: 33133115 PMCID: PMC7550625 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.569057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) crop health assumes unprecedented significance in being the second most important staple crop of the world. It is host to an array of fungal pathogens attacking the plant at different developmental stages and accrues various degrees of yield losses owing to these. Tilletia indica that causes Karnal bunt (KB) disease in wheat is one such fungal pathogen of high quarantine importance restricting the free global trade of wheat besides the loss of grain yield as well as quality. With global climate change, the disease appears to be shifting from its traditional areas of occurrence with reports of increased vulnerabilities of new areas across the continents. This KB vulnerability of new geographies is of serious concern because once established, the disease is extremely difficult to eradicate and no known instance of its complete eradication using any management strategy has been reported yet. The host resistance to KB is the most successful as well as preferred strategy for its mitigation and control. However, breeding of KB resistant wheat cultivars has proven to be not so easy, and the low success rate owes to the scarcity of resistance sources, extremely laborious and regulated field screening protocols delaying identification/validation of putative resistance sources, and complex quantitative nature of resistance with multiple genes conferring only partial resistance. Moreover, given a lack of comprehensive understanding of the KB disease epidemiology, host-pathogen interaction, and pathogen evolution. Here, in this review, we attempt to summarize the progress made and efforts underway toward a holistic understanding of the disease itself with a specific focus on the host-pathogen interaction between T. indica and wheat as key elements in the development of resistant germplasm. In this context, we emphasize the tools and techniques being utilized in development of KB resistant germplasm by illuminating upon the genetics concerning the host responses to the KB pathogen including a future course. As such, this article could act as a one stop information primer on this economically important and re-emerging old foe threatening to cause devastating impacts on food security and well-being of communities that rely on wheat.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Xinyao He
- International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, Texcoco, Mexico
| | | | - Prem Lal Kashyap
- ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, India
| | - Amos Alakonya
- International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, Texcoco, Mexico
| | - Vinod Chhokar
- Department of Bio and Nanotechnology, Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Hisar, India
| | | | - Pawan Kumar Singh
- International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, Texcoco, Mexico
- *Correspondence: Pawan Kumar Singh,
| |
Collapse
|