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Kazemi S, López-Muñoz AD, Hollý J, Jin L, Yewdell JW, Dolan BP. Variations in Cell Surface ACE2 Levels Alter Direct Binding of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein and Viral Infectivity: Implications for Measuring Spike Protein Interactions with Animal ACE2 Orthologs. J Virol 2022; 96:e0025622. [PMID: 36000847 PMCID: PMC9472623 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00256-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the most severe pandemic in a century. The virus gains access to host cells when the viral spike protein (S-protein) binds to the host cell surface receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Studies have attempted to understand SARS-CoV-2 S-protein interactions with vertebrate orthologs of ACE2 by expressing ACE2 orthologs in mammalian cells and measuring viral infection or S-protein binding. Often, these cells only transiently express ACE2 proteins, and the levels of ACE2 at the cell surface are not quantified. Here, we describe a cell-based assay that uses stably transfected cells expressing ACE2 proteins in a bicistronic vector with an easy-to-quantify reporter protein, Thy1.1. We found that both the binding of the S-protein receptor-binding domain (RBD) and infection with a SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus are proportional to the amount of human ACE2 expressed at the cell surface, which can be inferred by quantifying the level of Thy1.1. We also compared different ACE2 orthologs, which were expressed in stably transfected cells expressing equivalent levels of Thy1.1. When ranked for either viral infectivity or RBD binding, mouse ACE2 had a weak to undetectable affinity for S-protein, while human ACE2 had the highest level detected, and feline ACE2 had an intermediate phenotype. The generation of stably transfected cells whose ACE2 level can be normalized for cross-ortholog comparisons allows us to create a reusable cellular library useful for measuring emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants' abilities to potentially infect different animals. IMPORTANCE SARS-CoV-2 is a zoonotic virus responsible for the worst global pandemic in a century. An understanding of how the virus can infect other vertebrate species is important for controlling viral spread and understanding the natural history of the virus. Here, we describe a method to generate cells stably expressing different orthologs of ACE2, the receptor for SARS-CoV-2, on the surface of a human cell line. We find that both the binding of the viral spike protein receptor-binding domain (RBD) and infection of cells with a SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus are proportional to the ACE2 levels at the cell surface. This method will allow the creation of a library of stably transfected cells expressing similar levels of different vertebrate ACE2 orthologs, which can be used repeatedly for identifying vertebrate species that may be susceptible to infection with SARS-CoV-2 and its many variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soheila Kazemi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - Alberto Domingo López-Muñoz
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, Cell Biology Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Jaroslav Hollý
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, Cell Biology Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Ling Jin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - Jonathan W. Yewdell
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, Cell Biology Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Brian P. Dolan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
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2
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Lan J, Chen P, Liu W, Ren W, Zhang L, Ding Q, Zhang Q, Wang X, Ge J. Structural insights into the binding of SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and hCoV-NL63 spike receptor-binding domain to horse ACE2. Structure 2022; 30:1432-1442.e4. [PMID: 35917815 PMCID: PMC9341007 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2022.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Revised: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), SARS-CoV-2, and human coronavirus (hCoV)-NL63 utilize ACE2 as the functional receptor for cell entry, which leads to zoonotic infection. Horses (Equus caballus) attracted our attention because the spike protein receptor-binding domains (RBDs) of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV-2-related coronaviruses bind equine ACE2 (eACE2) with high affinity. Here we show that eACE2 binds the RBDs of these three coronaviruses and also SARS-CoV-2 variants but with lower affinities compared with human ACE2 (hACE2). Structural analysis and mutation assays indicated that eACE2-H41 accounts for the lower binding affinity of eACE2 to the RBDs of SARS-CoV-2 variants (Alpha, Beta, and Gamma), SARS-CoV, and hCoV-NL63. Pseudovirus infection assays showed that the SARS-CoV-2 Delta strain (B.1.617.2) displayed a significantly increased infection efficiency in eACE2-expressing HeLa cells. Our results reveal the molecular basis of eACE2 binding to the RBDs of SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and hCoV-NL63, which provides insights into the potential animal transmission of these ACE2-dependent coronaviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Lan
- The Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Protein Science, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Peng Chen
- Comprehensive AIDS Research Center, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Medicine and Vanke School of Public Health, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Weiming Liu
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Beijing Boai Hospital, China Rehabilitation Research Centre, No. 10 Jiaomen Beilu, Fengtai District, Beijing 100068, China
| | - Wenlin Ren
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Linqi Zhang
- Comprehensive AIDS Research Center, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Medicine and Vanke School of Public Health, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Qiang Ding
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Qi Zhang
- Comprehensive AIDS Research Center, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Medicine and Vanke School of Public Health, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
| | - Xinquan Wang
- The Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Protein Science, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
| | - Jiwan Ge
- The Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Protein Science, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China; Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China.
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3
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Rutherford C, Kafle P, Soos C, Epp T, Bradford L, Jenkins E. Investigating SARS-CoV-2 Susceptibility in Animal Species: A Scoping Review. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH INSIGHTS 2022; 16:11786302221107786. [PMID: 35782319 PMCID: PMC9247998 DOI: 10.1177/11786302221107786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In the early stages of response to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, it was imperative for researchers to rapidly determine what animal species may be susceptible to the virus, under low knowledge and high uncertainty conditions. In this scoping review, the animal species being evaluated for SARS-CoV-2 susceptibility, the methods used to evaluate susceptibility, and comparing the evaluations between different studies were conducted. Using the PRISMA-ScR methodology, publications and reports from peer-reviewed and gray literature sources were collected from databases, Google Scholar, the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), snowballing, and recommendations from experts. Inclusion and relevance criteria were applied, and information was subsequently extracted, categorized, summarized, and analyzed. Ninety seven sources (publications and reports) were identified which investigated 649 animal species from eight different classes: Mammalia, Aves, Actinopterygii, Reptilia, Amphibia, Insecta, Chondrichthyes, and Coelacanthimorpha. Sources used four different methods to evaluate susceptibility, in silico, in vitro, in vivo, and epidemiological analysis. Along with the different methods, how each source described "susceptibility" and evaluated the susceptibility of different animal species to SARS-CoV-2 varied, with conflicting susceptibility evaluations evident between different sources. Early in the pandemic, in silico methods were used the most to predict animal species susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 and helped guide more costly and intensive studies using in vivo or epidemiological analyses. However, the limitations of all methods must be recognized, and evaluations made by in silico and in vitro should be re-evaluated when more information becomes available, such as demonstrated susceptibility through in vivo and epidemiological analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connor Rutherford
- School of Public Health, University of
Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Pratap Kafle
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology,
Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK,
Canada
- Department of Veterinary Biomedical
Sciences, Long Island University Post Campus, Brookville, NY, USA
| | - Catherine Soos
- Ecotoxicology and Wildlife Health
Division, Science & Technology Branch, Environment and Climate Change Canada,
Saskatoon, SK, Canada
- Department of Veterinary Pathology,
Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK,
Canada
| | - Tasha Epp
- Department of Large Animal Clinical
Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan,
Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Lori Bradford
- Ron and Jane Graham School of
Professional Development, College of Engineering, and School of Environment and
Sustainability, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Emily Jenkins
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology,
Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK,
Canada
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Lawton KOY, Arthur RM, Moeller BC, Barnum S, Pusterla N. Investigation of the Role of Healthy and Sick Equids in the COVID-19 Pandemic through Serological and Molecular Testing. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12050614. [PMID: 35268183 PMCID: PMC8909032 DOI: 10.3390/ani12050614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The objective of the present study was to determine if horses are susceptible to SARS-CoV-2. Nasal swabs from 667 equids with acute onset of fever and respiratory signs were tested by qPCR for SARS-CoV-2. Further, 633 serum samples collected from a cohort of 587 healthy racing Thoroughbreds with possible exposure to humans with SARS-CoV-2 infection were tested for antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 using an ELISA targeting the receptor-binding domain of the spike protein. All 667 horses with fever and respiratory signs tested qPCR-negative for SARS-CoV-2. A total of 35/587 (5.9%) Thoroughbred racing horses had detectable IgG antibodies to SARS-CoV-2. While horses appear to be susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 when in close contact with humans with SARS-CoV-2 infection, clinical disease was not observed in the study horses. Experimental challenge studies using pure inocula are needed in order to study the clinical, hematological, molecular, and serological features of adult horses infected with SARS-CoV-2. Abstract More and more studies are reporting on the natural transmission of SARS-CoV-2 between humans with COVID-19 and their companion animals (dogs and cats). While horses are apparently susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection based on the homology between the human and the equine ACE-2 receptor, no clinical or subclinical infection has yet been reported in the equine species. To investigate the possible clinical role of SARS-CoV-2 in equids, nasal secretions from 667 horses with acute onset of fever and respiratory signs were tested for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 by qPCR. The samples were collected from January to December of 2020 and submitted to a commercial molecular diagnostic laboratory for the detection of common respiratory pathogens (equine influenza virus, equine herpesvirus-1/-4, equine rhinitis A and B virus, Streptococcus equi subspecies equi). An additional 633 serum samples were tested for antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 using an ELISA targeting the receptor-binding domain of the spike protein. The serum samples were collected from a cohort of 587 healthy racing Thoroughbreds in California after track personnel tested qPCR-positive for SARS-CoV-2. While 241/667 (36%) equids with fever and respiratory signs tested qPCR-positive for at least one of the common respiratory pathogens, not a single horse tested qPCR-positive for SARS-CoV-2. Amongst the racing Thoroughbreds, 35/587 (5.9%) horses had detectable antibodies to SARS-CoV-2. Similar to dogs and cats, horses do not seem to develop clinical SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, horses can act as incidental hosts and experience silent infection following spillover from humans with COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2-infected humans should avoid close contact with equids during the time of their illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaila O. Y. Lawton
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA; (K.O.Y.L.); (S.B.)
| | - Rick M. Arthur
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA;
| | - Benjamin C. Moeller
- KL Maddy Equine Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA;
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Samantha Barnum
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA; (K.O.Y.L.); (S.B.)
| | - Nicola Pusterla
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA; (K.O.Y.L.); (S.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-530-752-1039
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In Silico Screening of Natural Products as Potential Inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 Using Molecular Docking Simulation. Chin J Integr Med 2021; 28:249-256. [PMID: 34913151 PMCID: PMC8672856 DOI: 10.1007/s11655-021-3504-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Objective To explore potential natural products against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) via the study of structural and non-structural proteins of human coronaviruses. Methods In this study, we performed an in-silico survey of 25 potential natural compounds acting against SARS-CoV-2. Molecular docking studies were carried out using compounds against 3-chymotrypsin-like protease (3CLPRO), papain-like protease (PLPRO), RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), non-structural protein (nsp), human angiotensin converting enzyme 2 receptor (hACE2R), spike glycoprotein (S protein), abelson murine leukemia viral oncogene homolog 1 (ABL1), calcineurin-nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT) and transmembrane protease serine 2. Results Among the screened compounds, amentoflavone showed the best binding affinity with the 3CLPRO, RdRp, nsp13, nsp15, hACE2R. ABL1 and calcineurin-NFAT; berbamine with hACE2R and ABL1; cepharanthine with nsp10, nsp14, nsp16, S protein and ABL1; glucogallin with nsp15; and papyriflavonol A with PLPRO protein. Other good interacting compounds were juglanin, betulinic acid, betulonic acid, broussooflavan A, tomentin A, B and E, 7-methoxycryptopleurine, aloe emodin, quercetin, tanshinone I, tylophorine and furruginol, which also showed excellent binding affinity towards a number of target proteins. Most of these compounds showed better binding affinities towards the target proteins than the standard drugs used in this study. Conclusion Natural products or their derivatives may be one of the potential targets to fight against SARS-CoV-2. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary materials (Appendixes 1–6) are available in the online version of this article at DOI: 10.1007/s11655-021-3504-5
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6
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Kazemi S, López-Muñoz AD, Hollý J, Jin L, Yewdell JW, Dolan BP. Variations in cell-surface ACE2 levels alter direct binding of SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein and viral infectivity: Implications for measuring Spike protein interactions with animal ACE2 orthologs. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2021:2021.10.21.465386. [PMID: 34729559 PMCID: PMC8562541 DOI: 10.1101/2021.10.21.465386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of COVID-19, the most severe pandemic in a century. The virus gains access to host cells when the viral Spike protein (S-protein) binds to the host cell-surface receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Studies have attempted to understand SARS-CoV-2 S-protein interaction with vertebrate orthologs of ACE2 by expressing ACE2 orthologs in mammalian cells and measuring viral infection or S-protein binding. Often these cells only transiently express ACE2 proteins and levels of ACE2 at the cell surface are not quantified. Here, we describe a cell-based assay that uses stably transfected cells expressing ACE2 proteins in a bi-cistronic vector with an easy to quantify reporter protein to normalize ACE2 expression. We found that both binding of the S-protein receptor-binding domain (RBD) and infection with a SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus is proportional to the amount of human ACE2 expressed at the cell surface, which can be inferred by quantifying the level of reporter protein, Thy1.1. We also compared different ACE2 orthologs which were expressed in stably transfected cells expressing equivalent levels of Thy1.1. When ranked for either viral infectivity or RBD binding, mouse ACE2 had a weak to undetectable affinity for S-protein while human ACE2 was the highest level detected and feline ACE2 had an intermediate phenotype. The generation of stably transfected cells whose ACE2 level can be normalized for cross-ortholog comparisons allows us to create a reusable cellular library useful for measuring emerging SARS-CoV-2 variant's ability to potentially infect different animals. IMPORTANCE SARS-CoV-2 is a zoonotic virus responsible for the worst global pandemic in a century. An understanding of how the virus can infect other vertebrate species is important for controlling viral spread and understanding the natural history of the virus. Here we describe a method to generate cells stably expressing equivalent levels of different ACE2 orthologs, the receptor for SARS-CoV-2, on the surface of a human cell line. We find that both binding of the viral Spike protein receptor binding domain (RBD) and infection of cells with a SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus are proportional to ACE2 levels at the cell surface. Adaptation of this method will allow for the creation of a library of stable transfected cells expressing equivalent levels of different vertebrate ACE2 orthologs which can be repeatedly used for identifying vertebrate species which may be susceptible to infection with SARS-CoV-2 and its many variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soheila Kazemi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, OR. USA
| | - Alberto Domingo López-Muñoz
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, Cell Biology Section, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda MD. USA
| | - Jaroslav Hollý
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, Cell Biology Section, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda MD. USA
| | - Ling Jin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, OR. USA
| | - Jonathan W Yewdell
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, Cell Biology Section, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda MD. USA
| | - Brian P Dolan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, OR. USA
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7
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Ekstrand K, Flanagan AJ, Lin IE, Vejseli B, Cole A, Lally AP, Morris RL, Morgan KN. Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and the Welfare of Animals during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:2044. [PMID: 34359172 PMCID: PMC8300090 DOI: 10.3390/ani11072044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The accelerated pace of research into Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) necessitates periodic summaries of current research. The present paper reviews virus susceptibilities in species with frequent human contact, and factors that are best predictors of virus susceptibility. Species reviewed were those in contact with humans through entertainment, pet, or agricultural trades, and for whom reports (either anecdotal or published) exist regarding the SARS-CoV-2 virus and/or the resulting disease state COVID-19. Available literature was searched using an artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted engine, as well as via common databases, such as Web of Science and Medline. The present review focuses on susceptibility and transmissibility of SARS-CoV-2, and polymorphisms in transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) that contribute to species differences. Dogs and pigs appear to have low susceptibility, while ferrets, mink, some hamster species, cats, and nonhuman primates (particularly Old World species) have high susceptibility. Precautions may therefore be warranted in interactions with such species, and more selectivity practiced when choosing appropriate species to serve as models for research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amanda J. Flanagan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA;
| | - Ilyan E. Lin
- Department of Biology, Wheaton College, Norton, MA 02766, USA; (I.E.L.); (B.V.); (R.L.M.)
| | - Brendon Vejseli
- Department of Biology, Wheaton College, Norton, MA 02766, USA; (I.E.L.); (B.V.); (R.L.M.)
| | - Allicyn Cole
- Program in Neuroscience, Wheaton College, Norton, MA 02766, USA; (A.C.); (A.P.L.)
| | - Anna P. Lally
- Program in Neuroscience, Wheaton College, Norton, MA 02766, USA; (A.C.); (A.P.L.)
| | - Robert L. Morris
- Department of Biology, Wheaton College, Norton, MA 02766, USA; (I.E.L.); (B.V.); (R.L.M.)
| | - Kathleen N. Morgan
- Program in Neuroscience, Wheaton College, Norton, MA 02766, USA; (A.C.); (A.P.L.)
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Maurin M, Fenollar F, Mediannikov O, Davoust B, Devaux C, Raoult D. Current Status of Putative Animal Sources of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Humans: Wildlife, Domestic Animals and Pets. Microorganisms 2021; 9:868. [PMID: 33920724 PMCID: PMC8072559 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9040868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Revised: 04/11/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 is currently considered to have emerged from a bat coronavirus reservoir. However, the real natural cycle of this virus remains to be elucidated. Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic has led to novel opportunities for SARS-CoV-2 transmission between humans and susceptible animal species. In silico and in vitro evaluation of the interactions between the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and eucaryotic angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor have tentatively predicted susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection of several animal species. Although useful, these data do not always correlate with in vivo data obtained in experimental models or during natural infections. Other host biological properties may intervene such as the body temperature, level of receptor expression, co-receptor, restriction factors, and genetic background. The spread of SARS-CoV-2 also depends on the extent and duration of viral shedding in the infected host as well as population density and behaviour (group living and grooming). Overall, current data indicate that the most at-risk interactions between humans and animals for COVID-19 infection are those involving certain mustelids (such as minks and ferrets), rodents (such as hamsters), lagomorphs (especially rabbits), and felines (including cats). Therefore, special attention should be paid to the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection associated with pets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Max Maurin
- University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, CHU Grenoble Alpes, TIMC-IMAG, 38000 Grenoble, France;
| | - Florence Fenollar
- IHU-Méditerranée Infection, 13005 Marseille, France; (F.F.); (O.M.); (B.D.); (C.D.)
- IRD, AP-HM, SSA, VITROME, Aix Marseille University, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Oleg Mediannikov
- IHU-Méditerranée Infection, 13005 Marseille, France; (F.F.); (O.M.); (B.D.); (C.D.)
- IRD, AP-HM, MEPHI, Aix Marseille University, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Bernard Davoust
- IHU-Méditerranée Infection, 13005 Marseille, France; (F.F.); (O.M.); (B.D.); (C.D.)
- IRD, AP-HM, MEPHI, Aix Marseille University, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Christian Devaux
- IHU-Méditerranée Infection, 13005 Marseille, France; (F.F.); (O.M.); (B.D.); (C.D.)
- IRD, AP-HM, MEPHI, Aix Marseille University, 13005 Marseille, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Didier Raoult
- IHU-Méditerranée Infection, 13005 Marseille, France; (F.F.); (O.M.); (B.D.); (C.D.)
- IRD, AP-HM, MEPHI, Aix Marseille University, 13005 Marseille, France
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