Stem cell transplantation for motor neuron disease: current approaches and future perspectives

Potential therapeutic effect of olfactory ensheathing cells in neurological diseases: neurodegenerative diseases and peripheral nerve injuries

Neurological diseases are destructive, mainly characterized by the failure of endogenous repair, the inability to recover tissue damage, resulting in the increasing loss of cognitive and physical function. Although some clinical drugs can alleviate the progression of these diseases, but they lack therapeutic effect in repairing tissue injury and rebuilding neurological function. More and more studies have shown that cell therapy has made good achievements in the application of nerve injury. Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are a special type of glial cells, which have been proved to play an important role as an alternative therapy for neurological diseases, opening up a new way for the treatment of neurological problems. The functional mechanisms of OECs in the treatment of neurological diseases include neuroprotection, immune regulation, axon regeneration, improvement of nerve injury microenvironment and myelin regeneration, which also include secreted bioactive factors. Therefore, it is of great significance to better understand the mechanism of OECs promoting functional improvement, and to recognize the implementation of these treatments and the effective simulation of nerve injury disorders. In this review, we discuss the function of OECs and their application value in the treatment of neurological diseases, and position OECs as a potential candidate strategy for the treatment of nervous system diseases.

Inducible motor neuron differentiation of human induced pluripotent stem cells in vivo

OBJECTIVES

Transplantation of neural progenitor cells (NPCs) derived from human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) is one of the promising treatment strategies for motor neuron diseases (MNDs). However, the inefficiency in committed differentiation of NPCs in vivo limits its application. Here, we tried to establish a potential therapeutic strategy for MNDs by in vivo directional differentiation of hiPSCs engineered with motor neuron (MN) specific transcription factors and Tet-On system.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We engineered hiPSCs with three MN-specific transcription factors and Tet-On system. The engineered cells were directly transplanted into immunodeficient mice through subcutaneous, intra-spinal cord and intracerebroventricular injections. Following doxycycline (Dox) induction, teratoma formation, and motor MN differentiation were evaluated.

RESULTS

We generated genetically engineered hiPSCs, in which the expression of Ngn2, Isl1, and Lhx3 was controlled by a drug-inducible transgenic system. These cells showed normal pluripotency and proliferative capacity, and were able to directionally differentiate into mature motor neurons (MNs) and NPCs with high efficiency in spinal cords and cerebral lateral ventricles under the induction of Dox. The grafts showed long-term survival in the recipient mice without formation of teratoma.

CONCLUSIONS

The induced mature MNs and NPCs were expected to replace the damaged endogenous MNs directly, and play a role of de novo stem cell stock for long-term neuron damage repair, respectively. Therefore, in vivo directional differentiation of the hiPSCs engineered with MN-specific transcription factors and Tet-On system via Dox induction could be a potential therapeutic strategy for MNDs with high efficacy and safety.

Gene Therapy Approach with an Emphasis on Growth Factors: Theoretical and Clinical Outcomes in Neurodegenerative Diseases

The etiology of many neurological diseases affecting the central nervous system (CNS) is unknown and still needs more effective and specific therapeutic approaches. Gene therapy has a promising future in treating neurodegenerative disorders by correcting the genetic defects or by therapeutic protein delivery and is now an attraction for neurologists to treat brain disorders, like Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, spinal muscular atrophy, spinocerebellar ataxia, epilepsy, Huntington’s disease, stroke, and spinal cord injury. Gene therapy allows the transgene induction, with a unique expression in cells’ substrate. This article mainly focuses on the delivering modes of genetic materials in the CNS, which includes viral and non-viral vectors and their application in gene therapy. Despite the many clinical trials conducted so far, data have shown disappointing outcomes. The efforts done to improve outcomes, efficacy, and safety in the identification of targets in various neurological disorders are also discussed here. Adapting gene therapy as a new therapeutic approach for treating neurological disorders seems to be promising, with early detection and delivery of therapy before the neuron is lost, helping a lot the development of new therapeutic options to translate to the clinic.

An open-label phase 1 clinical trial of the allogeneic side population adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells in SMA type 1 patients

INTRODUCTION

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder of alpha motor neurons of spinal cord associated with progressive muscle weakness and hypotonia, is the most common genetic cause of infant mortality. Although there is few promising treatment for SMA, but the field of translational research is active in it, and stem cell-based therapy clinical trials or case studies are ongoing. Combination of different therapeutic approaches for noncurative treatments may increase their effectiveness and compliance of patients. We present a phase 1 clinical trial in patients with SMA1 who received side population adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (SPADMSCs).

METHODS

The intervention group received three intrathecal administrations of escalating doses of SPADMSCs and followed until 24 months or the survival time. The safety analysis was assessed by controlling the side effects and efficacy evaluations performed by the Hammersmith Infant Neurological Examination (HINE), Ballard score, and electrodiagnostic (EDX) evaluation. These evaluations were performed before intervention and at the end of the follow-up.

RESULTS

The treatment was safe and well tolerated, without any adverse event related to the stem cell administration. One of the patients in the intervention group was alive after 24 months of study follow-up. He is a non-sitter 62-month-old boy with appropriate weight gain and need for noninvasive ventilation (NIV) for about 8 h per day. Clinical scores, need for supportive ventilation, and number of hospitalizations were not meaningful parameters in the response of patients in the intervention and control groups. All five patients in the intervention group showed significant improvement in the motor amplitude response of the tibial nerve (0.56mV; p: 0.029).

CONCLUSION

This study showed that SPADMSCs therapy is tolerable and safe with promising efficacy in SMA I. Probably same as other treatment strategies, early intervention will increase its efficacy and prepare time for more injections. We suggest EDX evaluation for the follow-up of treatment efficacy.

Non-immunogenic Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells, a Promising Way Forward for Allogenic Transplantations for Neurological Disorders

Neurological disorder is a general term used for diseases affecting the function of the brain and nervous system. Those include a broad range of diseases from developmental disorders (e.g., Autism) over injury related disorders (e.g., stroke and brain tumors) to age related neurodegeneration (e.g., Alzheimer's disease), affecting up to 1 billion people worldwide. For most of those disorders, no curative treatment exists leaving symptomatic treatment as the primary mean of alleviation. Human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC) in combination with animal models have been instrumental to foster our understanding of underlying disease mechanisms in the brain. Of specific interest are patient derived hiPSC which allow for targeted gene editing in the cases of known mutations. Such personalized treatment would include (1) acquisition of primary cells from the patient, (2) reprogramming of those into hiPSC via non-integrative methods, (3) corrective intervention via CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing of mutations, (4) quality control to ensure successful correction and absence of off-target effects, and (5) subsequent transplantation of hiPSC or pre-differentiated precursor cells for cell replacement therapies. This would be the ideal scenario but it is time consuming and expensive. Therefore, it would be of great benefit if transplanted hiPSC could be modulated to become invisible to the recipient's immune system, avoiding graft rejection and allowing for allogenic transplantations. This review will focus on the current status of gene editing to generate non-immunogenic hiPSC and how these cells can be used to treat neurological disorders by using cell replacement therapy. By providing an overview of current limitations and challenges in stem cell replacement therapies and the treatment of neurological disorders, this review outlines how gene editing and non-immunogenic hiPSC can contribute and pave the road for new therapeutic advances. Finally, the combination of using non-immunogenic hiPSC and in vivo animal modeling will highlight the importance of models with translational value for safety efficacy testing; before embarking on human trials.

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) as game-changing tools in the treatment of neurodegenerative disease: Mirage or reality?

Based on investigations, there exist tight correlations between neurodegenerative diseases' incidence and progression and aberrant protein aggregreferates in nervous tissue. However, the pathology of these diseases is not well known, leading to an inability to find an appropriate therapeutic approach to delay occurrence or slow many neurodegenerative diseases' development. The accessibility of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) in mimicking the phenotypes of various late-onset neurodegenerative diseases presents a novel strategy for in vitro disease modeling. The iPSCs provide a valuable and well-identified resource to clarify neurodegenerative disease mechanisms, as well as prepare a promising human stem cell platform for drug screening. Undoubtedly, neurodegenerative disease modeling using iPSCs has established innovative opportunities for both mechanistic types of research and recognition of novel disease treatments. Most important, the iPSCs have been considered as a novel autologous cell origin for cell-based therapy of neurodegenerative diseases following differentiation to varied types of neural lineage cells (e.g. GABAergic neurons, dopamine neurons, cortical neurons, and motor neurons). In this review, we summarize iPSC-based disease modeling in neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease. Moreover, we discuss the efficacy of cell-replacement therapies for neurodegenerative disease.

Cell-based therapies for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/motor neuron disease

BACKGROUND

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), which is also known as motor neuron disease (MND), is a fatal disease associated with rapidly progressive disability, for which no definitive treatment exists. Current treatment approaches largely focus on relieving symptoms to improve the quality of life of those affected. The therapeutic potential of cell-based therapies in ALS/MND has not been fully evaluated, given the paucity of high-quality clinical trials. Based on data from preclinical studies, cell-based therapy is a promising treatment for ALS/MND. This review was first published in 2015 when the first clinical trials of cell-based therapies were still in progress. We undertook this update to incorporate evidence now available from randomised controlled trials (RCTs).

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effects of cell-based therapy for people with ALS/MND, compared with placebo or no treatment.

SEARCH METHODS

On 31 July 2019, we searched the Cochrane Neuromuscular Specialised Register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, and Embase. We also searched two clinical trials registries for ongoing or unpublished studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included RCTs that assigned people with ALS/MND to receive cell-based therapy versus a placebo or no additional treatment. Co-interventions were allowed, provided that they were given to each group equally.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We followed standard Cochrane methodology.

MAIN RESULTS

Two RCTs involving 112 participants were eligible for inclusion in this review. One study compared autologous bone marrow-mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSC) plus riluzole versus control (riluzole only), while the other study compared combined intramuscular and intrathecal administration of autologous mesenchymal stem cells secreting neurotrophic factors (MSC-NTF) to placebo. The latter study was reported as an abstract and provided no numerical data. Both studies were funded by biotechnology companies. The only study that contributed to the outcome data in the review involved 64 participants, comparing BM-MSC plus riluzole versus control (riluzole only). It reported outcomes after four to six months. It had a low risk of selection bias, detection bias and reporting bias, but a high risk of performance bias and attrition bias. The certainty of evidence was low for all major efficacy outcomes, with imprecision as the main downgrading factor, because the range of plausible estimates, as shown by the 95% confidence intervals (CIs), encompassed a range that would likely result in different clinical decisions. Functional impairment, expressed as the mean change in the Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Functional Rating Scale-Revised (ALSFRS-R) score from baseline to six months after cell injection was slightly reduced (better) in the BM-MSC group compared to the control group (mean difference (MD) 3.38, 95% CI 1.22 to 5.54; 1 RCT, 56 participants; low-certainty evidence). ALSFRS-R has a range from 48 (normal) to 0 (maximally impaired); a change of 4 or more points is considered clinically important. The trial did not report outcomes at 12 months. There was no clear difference between the BM-MSC and the no treatment group in change in respiratory function (per cent predicted forced vital capacity; FVC%; MD -0.53, 95% CI -5.37 to 4.31; 1 RCT, 56 participants; low-certainty evidence); overall survival at six months (risk ratio (RR) 1.07, 95% CI 0.94 to 1.22; 1 RCT, 64 participants; low-certainty evidence); risk of total adverse events (RR 0.86, 95% CI 0.62 to 1.19; 1 RCT, 64 participants; low-certainty evidence) or serious adverse events (RR 0.47, 95% CI 0.13 to 1.72; 1 RCT, 64 participants; low-certainty evidence). The study did not measure muscle strength.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Currently, there is a lack of high-certainty evidence to guide practice on the use of cell-based therapy to treat ALS/MND. Uncertainties remain as to whether this mode of therapy is capable of restoring muscle function, slowing disease progression, and improving survival in people with ALS/MND. Although one RCT provided low-certainty evidence that BM-MSC may slightly reduce functional impairment measured on the ALSFRS-R after four to six months, this was a small phase II trial that cannot be used to establish efficacy. We need large, prospective RCTs with long-term follow-up to establish the efficacy and safety of cellular therapy and to determine patient-, disease- and cell treatment-related factors that may influence the outcome of cell-based therapy. The major goals of future research are to determine the appropriate cell source, phenotype, dose and method of delivery, as these will be key elements in designing an optimal cell-based therapy programme for people with ALS/MND. Future research should also explore novel treatment strategies, including combinations of cellular therapy and standard or novel neuroprotective agents, to find the best possible approach to prevent or reverse the neurological deficit in ALS/MND, and to prolong survival in this debilitating and fatal condition.

Orchestrating stem cell fate: Novel tools for regenerative medicine

Mesenchymal stem cells are undifferentiated cells able to acquire different phenotypes under specific stimuli. In vitro manipulation of these cells is focused on understanding stem cell behavior, proliferation and pluripotency. Latest advances in the field of stem cells concern epigenetics and its role in maintaining self-renewal and differentiation capabilities. Chemical and physical stimuli can modulate cell commitment, acting on gene expression of Oct-4, Sox-2 and Nanog, the main stemness markers, and tissue-lineage specific genes. This activation or repression is related to the activity of chromatin-remodeling factors and epigenetic regulators, new targets of many cell therapies. The aim of this review is to afford a view of the current state of in vitro and in vivo stem cell applications, highlighting the strategies used to influence stem cell commitment for current and future cell therapies. Identifying the molecular mechanisms controlling stem cell fate could open up novel strategies for tissue repairing processes and other clinical applications.

Restoring Motor Neurons in Spinal Cord Injury With Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating neurological disorder that damages motor, sensory, and autonomic pathways. Recent advances in stem cell therapy have allowed for the in vitro generation of motor neurons (MNs) showing electrophysiological and synaptic activity, expression of canonical MN biomarkers, and the ability to graft into spinal lesions. Clinical translation, especially the transplantation of MN precursors in spinal lesions, has thus far been elusive because of stem cell heterogeneity and protocol variability, as well as a hostile microenvironment such as inflammation and scarring, which yield inconsistent pre-clinical results without a consensus best-practice therapeutic strategy. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) in particular have lower ethical and immunogenic concerns than other stem cells, which could make them more clinically applicable. In this review, we focus on the differentiation of iPSCs into neural precursors, MN progenitors, mature MNs, and MN subtype fates. Previous reviews have summarized MN development and differentiation, but an up-to-date summary of technological and experimental advances holding promise for bench-to-bedside translation, especially those targeting individual MN subtypes in SCI, is currently lacking. We discuss biological mechanisms of MN lineage, recent experimental protocols and techniques for MN differentiation from iPSCs, and transplantation of neural precursors and MN lineage cells in spinal cord lesions to restore motor function. We emphasize efficient, clinically safe, and personalized strategies for the application of MN and their subtypes as therapy in spinal lesions.

Quantification of motor neuron loss and muscular atrophy in ricin-induced focal nerve injury

BACKGROUND

Intrasciatic nerve injection of the Ricinus communis agglutinin (RCA or ricin) causes degeneration of motor neurons (MNs) with functional deficits, such as those that occur in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The objective of this study was to develop a new comprehensive platform for quantitative evaluation of MN loss, muscular atrophy and behavioral deficits using different ricin injection regimens.

NEW METHOD

Fluorogold (FG)-guided stereological quantification of MNs, in vivo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of muscular atrophy, and CatWalk behavioral testing were used to evaluate the outcome of rats treated with different ricin regimens (RCA60 0.5 μg, RCA60 3 μg, and RCA120 6 μg) as animal models of MN degeneration.

RESULTS

FG-guided stereological counting of MNs enabled identification, dissection and robust quantification of ricin-induced MN loss. The RCA60 0.5 μg and RCA120 6 μg regimens were found to be best suited as preclinical MN depletion models, with a low mortality and a reproducible MN loss, accompanied by muscle atrophy and functional deficits evaluated by MRI and the CatWalk method, respectively.

COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS

1) Fluorogold neuronal tracing provides a robust and straightforward means for quantifying MN loss in the spinal cord; 2) MRI is well-suited to non-invasively assess muscle atrophy; and 3) The CatWalk method is more flexible than rotarod test for studying motor deficits.

CONCLUSION

Intrasciatic injection of RCA60 or RCA120 induces nerve injury and muscle atrophy, which can be properly evaluated by a comprehensive platform using FG-guided quantitative 3D topographic histological analysis, MRI and the CatWalk behavioral test.

Effects of biphasic and monophasic electrical stimulation on mitochondrial dynamics, cell apoptosis, and cell proliferation

Currently, electrical stimulation (ES) is used to induce changes in various tissues and cellular processes, but its effects on mitochondrial dynamics and mechanisms are unknown. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of monophasic and biphasic, anodal, and cathodal ES on apoptosis, proliferation, and mitochondrial dynamics in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Cells were cultured and treated with ES. Alamar blue assay was performed to measure cell proliferation. The proteins expression of apoptotic-related proteins Bcl-2 associated X (Bax), B cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), optic-atrophy-1 (OPA1), mitofusin2 (Mfn2), phosphorylated dynamin-related protein 1 at serine 616 (p-DRP1), and total dynamin-related protein 1 (Total-DRP1) were also determined. The results showed that monophasic anodal and biphasic anodal/cathodal (Bi Anod) ES for 1 hr at 125 pulses per minute (2.0 Hz) produced the most significant increase in cell proliferation. In addition, monophasic anodal and Bi Anod ES treated cells displayed a significant increase in the levels of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, whereas the Bax levels were not changed. Moreover, the levels of Mfn2 were increased in the cells treated by Bi Anod, and OPA1 was increased by monophasic anodal and Bi Anod ES, indicating increased mitochondrial fusion in these ES-treated cells. However, the levels of mitochondrial fission indicated by DRP1 remained unchanged compared with non-stimulated cells. These findings were confirmed through visualization of mitochondria using Mitotracker Deep Red, demonstrating that monophasic anodal and Bi Anod ES could induce pro-survival effects in SH-SY5Y cells through increasing cell proliferation and mitochondrial fusion. Future research is needed to validate these findings for the clinical application of monophasic anodal and Bi Anod ES.

Neuroprotective Potential of Cell-Based Therapies in ALS: From Bench to Bedside

Motor neurons (MN) degeneration is a main feature of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a neurological disorder with a progressive course. The diagnosis of ALS is essentially a clinical one. Most common symptoms include a gradual neurological deterioration that reflect the impairment and subsequent loss of muscle functions. Up-to-date ALS has no therapy that would prevent or cure a disease. Modern therapeutic strategies comprise of neuroprotective treatment focused on antiglutamatergic, antioxidant, antiapoptotic, and anti-inflammatory molecules. Stem cells application and gene therapy has provided researchers with a powerful tool for discovery of new mechanisms and therapeutic agents, as well as opened new perspectives for patients and family members. Here, we review latest progress made in basic, translational and clinical stem cell research related to the ALS. We overviewed results of preclinical and clinical studies employing cell-based therapy to treat neurodegenerative disorders. A special focus has been made on the neuroprotective properties of adult mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) application into ALS patients. Finally, we overviewed latest progress in the field of embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells used for the modeling and application during neurodegeneration in general and in ALS in particular.

Ex vivo gene therapy for the treatment of neurological disorders

Ex vivo gene therapy involves the genetic modification of cells outside of the body to produce therapeutic factors and their subsequent transplantation back into patients. Various cell types can be genetically engineered. However, with the explosion in stem cell technologies, neural stem/progenitor cells and mesenchymal stem cells are most often used. The synergy between the effect of the new cell and the additional engineered properties can often provide significant benefits to neurodegenerative changes in the brain. In this review, we cover both preclinical animal studies and clinical human trials that have used ex vivo gene therapy to treat neurological disorders with a focus on Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease, ALS, and stroke. We highlight some of the major advances in this field including new autologous sources of pluripotent stem cells, safer ways to introduce therapeutic transgenes, and various methods of gene regulation. We also address some of the remaining hurdles including tunable gene regulation, in vivo cell tracking, and rigorous experimental design. Overall, given the current outcomes from researchers and clinical trials, along with exciting new developments in ex vivo gene and cell therapy, we anticipate that successful treatments for neurological diseases will arise in the near future.

Effects of stem cell therapy on protein profile of parkinsonian rats using an(18) O-labeling quantitative proteomic approach

The application of neural stem cell (NSC) research to neurodegenerative diseases has led to promising clinical trials. Currently, NSC therapy is most promising for Parkinson's disease (PD). We conducted behavioral tests and immunoassays for the profiling of a PD model in rats to assess the therapeutic effects of NSC treatments. Further, using a multiple sample comparison workflow, combined with (18) O-labeled proteome mixtures, we compared the differentially expressed proteins from control, PD, and NSC-treated PD rats. The results were analyzed bioinformatically and verified by Western blot. Based on our initial findings, we believe that the proteomic approach is a valuable tool in evaluating the therapeutic effects of NSC transplantation on neurodegenerative disorders.

Cell-based therapies for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/motor neuron disease

BACKGROUND

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), which is also known as motor neuron disease (MND) is a fatal disease associated with rapidly progressive disability, for which no definitive treatment as yet exists. Current treatment regimens largely focus on relieving symptoms to improve the quality of life of those affected. Based on data from preclinical studies, cell-based therapy is a promising treatment for ALS/MND.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effects of cell-based therapy for people with ALS/MND, compared with placebo or no additional treatment.

SEARCH METHODS

On 21 June 2016, we searched the Cochrane Neuromuscular Specialised Register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, and Embase. We also searched two clinical trials' registries for ongoing or unpublished studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We planned to include randomised controlled trials (RCTs), quasi-RCTs and cluster RCTs that assigned people with ALS/MND to receive cell-based therapy versus a placebo or no additional treatment. Co-interventions were allowable, provided that they were given to each group equally.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We followed standard Cochrane methodology.

MAIN RESULTS

No studies were eligible for inclusion in the review. We identified four ongoing trials.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Currently, there is a lack of high-quality evidence to guide practice on the use of cell-based therapy to treat ALS/MND.We need large, prospective RCTs to establish the efficacy of cellular therapy and to determine patient-, disease- and cell treatment-related factors that may influence the outcome of cell-based therapy. The major goals of future research should be to determine the appropriate cell source, phenotype, dose, and route of delivery, as these will be key elements in designing an optimal cell-based therapy programme for people with ALS/MND. Future research should also explore novel treatment strategies, including combinations of cellular therapy and standard or novel neuroprotective agents, to find the best possible approach to prevent or reverse the neurological deficit in ALS/MND, and to prolong survival in this debilitating and fatal condition.

Regenerative cellular therapies for neurologic diseases

The promise of stem cell regeneration has been the hope of many neurologic patients with permanent damage to the central nervous system. There are hundreds of stem cell trials worldwide intending to test the regenerative capacity of stem cells in various neurological conditions from Parkinson's disease to multiple sclerosis. Although no stem cell therapy is clinically approved for use in any human disease indication, patients are seeking out trials and asking clinicians for guidance. This review summarizes the current state of regenerative stem cell transplantation divided into seven conditions for which trials are currently active: demyelinating diseases/spinal cord injury, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, stroke, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, macular degeneration and peripheral nerve diseases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: PSC and the brain.

Human neural progenitors differentiate into astrocytes and protect motor neurons in aging rats

Age-associated health decline presents a significant challenge to healthcare, although there are few animal models that can be used to test potential treatments. Here, we show that there is a significant reduction in both spinal cord motor neurons and motor function over time in the aging rat. One explanation for this motor neuron loss could be reduced support from surrounding aging astrocytes. Indeed, we have previously shown using in vitro models that aging rat astrocytes are less supportive to rat motor neuron function and survival over time. Here, we test whether rejuvenating the astrocyte niche can improve the survival of motor neurons in an aging spinal cord. We transplanted fetal-derived human neural progenitor cells (hNPCs) into the aging rat spinal cord and found that the cells survive and differentiate into astrocytes with a much higher efficiency than when transplanted into younger animals, suggesting that the aging environment stimulates astrocyte maturation. Importantly, the engrafted astrocytes were able to protect against motor neuron loss associated with aging, although this did not result in an increase in motor function based on behavioral assays. We also transplanted hNPCs genetically modified to secrete glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) into the aging rat spinal cord, as this combination of cell and protein delivery can protect motor neurons in animal models of ALS. During aging, GDNF-expressing hNPCs protected motor neurons, though to the same extent as hNPCs alone, and again had no effect on motor function. We conclude that hNPCs can survive well in the aging spinal cord, protect motor neurons and mature faster into astrocytes when compared to transplantation into the young spinal cord. While there was no functional improvement, there were no functional deficits either, further supporting a good safety profile of hNPC transplantation even into the older patient population.

Neuroplasticity and Repair in Rodent Neurotoxic Models of Spinal Motoneuron Disease

Retrogradely transported toxins are widely used to set up protocols for selective lesioning of the nervous system. These methods could be collectively named "molecular neurosurgery" because they are able to destroy specific types of neurons by using targeted neurotoxins. Lectins such as ricin, volkensin, or modeccin and neuropeptide- or antibody-conjugated saporin represent the most effective toxins used for neuronal lesioning. Some of these specific neurotoxins could be used to induce selective depletion of spinal motoneurons. In this review, we extensively describe two rodent models of motoneuron degeneration induced by volkensin or cholera toxin-B saporin. In particular, we focus on the possible experimental use of these models to mimic neurodegenerative diseases, to dissect the molecular mechanisms of neuroplastic changes underlying the spontaneous functional recovery after motoneuron death, and finally to test different strategies of neural repair. The potential clinical applications of these approaches are also discussed.

Chronic Treatment with the AMPK Agonist AICAR Prevents Skeletal Muscle Pathology but Fails to Improve Clinical Outcome in a Mouse Model of Severe Spinal Muscular Atrophy

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a genetic neuromuscular disorder characterized by spinal and brainstem motor neuron (MN) loss and skeletal muscle paralysis. Currently, there is no effective treatment other than supportive care to ameliorate the quality of life of patients with SMA. Some studies have reported that physical exercise, by improving muscle strength and motor function, is potentially beneficial in SMA. The adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase agonist 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-β-D-ribofuranoside (AICAR) has been reported to be an exercise mimetic agent that is able to regulate muscle metabolism and increase endurance both at rest and during exercise. Chronic AICAR administration has been shown to ameliorate the dystrophic muscle phenotype and motor behavior in the mdx mouse, a model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Here, we investigated whether chronic AICAR treatment was able to elicit beneficial effects on motor abilities and neuromuscular histopathology in a mouse model of severe SMA (the SMNΔ7 mouse). We report that AICAR improved skeletal muscle atrophy and structural changes found in neuromuscular junctions of SMNΔ7 animals. However, although AICAR prevented the loss of glutamatergic excitatory synapses on MNs, this compound was not able to mitigate MN loss or the microglial and astroglial reaction occurring in the spinal cord of diseased mice. Moreover, no improvement in survival or motor performance was seen in SMNΔ7 animals treated with AICAR. The beneficial effects of AICAR in SMA found in our study are SMN-independent, as no changes in the expression of this protein were seen in the spinal cord and skeletal muscle of diseased animals treated with this compound.

Inhibitory dysfunction in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: future therapeutic opportunities

In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, motor neuron hyperexcitability and inhibitory dysfunction is emerging as a potential causative link in the dysfunction and degeneration of the motoneuronal circuitry that characterizes the disease. Interneurons, as key regulators of excitability, may mediate much of this imbalance, yet we know little about the way in which inhibitory deficits perturb excitability. In this review, we explore inhibitory control of excitability and the potential contribution of altered inhibition to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis disease processes and vulnerabilities, identifying important windows of therapeutic opportunity and potential interventions, specifically targeting inhibitory control at key disease stages.

Intrathecal delivery of mesenchymal stromal cells protects the structure of altered perineuronal nets in SOD1 rats and amends the course of ALS

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder resulting in a lethal outcome. We studied changes in ventral horn perineuronal nets (PNNs) of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) rats during the normal disease course and after the intrathecal application (5 × 10⁵ cells) of human bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) postsymptom manifestation. We found that MSCs ameliorated disease progression, significantly improved motor activity, and prolonged survival. For the first time, we report that SOD1 rats have an abnormal disorganized PNN structure around the spinal motoneurons and give different expression profiles of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), such as versican, aggrecan, and phosphacan, but not link protein-1. Additionally, SOD1 rats had different profiles for CSPG gene expression (Versican, Hapln1, Neurocan, and Tenascin-R), whereas Aggrecan and Brevican profiles remained unchanged. The application of MSCs preserved PNN structure, accompanied by better survival of motorneurons. We measured the concentration of cytokines (IL-1α, MCP-1, TNF-α, GM-CSF, IL-4, and IFN-γ) in the rats' cerebrospinal fluid and found significantly higher concentrations of IL-1α and MCP-1. Our results show that PNN and cytokine homeostasis are altered in the SOD1 rat model of ALS. These changes could potentially serve as biological markers for the diagnosis, assessment of treatment efficacy, and prognosis of ALS. We also show that the administration of human MSCs is a safe procedure that delays the loss of motor function and increases the overall survival of symptomatic ALS animals, by remodeling the recipients' pattern of gene expression and having neuroprotective and immunomodulatory effects. Stem Cells2014;32:3163–3172

In Vivo Tracking of Human Neural Progenitor Cells in the Rat Brain Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging Is Not Enhanced by Ferritin Expression

Rapid growth in the field of stem cell research has generated a lot of interest in their therapeutic use, especially in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Specifically, human neural progenitor cells (hNPCs), unique in their capability to differentiate into cells of the neural lineage, have been widely investigated due to their ability to survive, thrive, and migrate toward injured tissues. Still, one of the major roadblocks for clinical applicability arises from the inability to monitor these cells following transplantation. Molecular imaging techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), have been explored to assess hNPC transplant location, migration, and survival. Here we investigated whether inducing hNPCs to overexpress ferritin (hNPCs(Fer)), an iron storage protein, is sufficient to track these cells long term in the rat striatum using MRI. We found that increased hypointensity on MRI images could establish hNPC(Fer) location. Unexpectedly, however, wild-type hNPC transplants were detected in a similar manner, which is likely due to increased iron accumulation following transplantation-induced damage. Hence, we labeled hNPCs with superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoparticles to further increase iron content in an attempt to enhance cell contrast in MRI. SPIO-labeling of hNPCs (hNPCs-SPIO) achieved increased hypointensity, with significantly greater area of decreased T2* compared to hNPC(Fer) (p < 0.0001) and all other controls used. However, none of the techniques could be used to determine graft rejection in vivo, which is imperative for understanding cell behavior following transplantation. We conclude that in order for cell survival to be monitored in preclinical and clinical settings, another molecular imaging technique must be employed, including perhaps multimodal imaging, which would utilize MRI along with another imaging modality.

Spinal muscular atrophies

Spinal muscular atrophies (SMAs) are hereditary degenerative disorders of lower motor neurons associated with progressive muscle weakness and atrophy. Proximal 5q SMA is caused by decreased levels of the survival of motor neuron (SMN) protein and is the most common genetic cause of infant mortality. Its inheritance pattern is autosomal recessive, resulting from mutations involving the SMN1 gene on chromosome 5q13. Unlike other autosomal recessive diseases, the SMN gene has a unique structure (an inverted duplication) that presents potential therapeutic targets. Although there is currently no effective treatment of SMA, the field of translational research in this disorder is active and clinical trials are ongoing. Advances in the multidisciplinary supportive care of children with SMA also offer hope for improved life expectancy and quality of life.

Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor-secreting human neural progenitors show long-term survival, maturation into astrocytes, and no tumor formation following transplantation into the spinal cord of immunocompromised rats

Human neural progenitor cells (hNPCs) derived from the fetal cortex can be expanded in vitro and genetically modified through lentiviral transduction to secrete growth factors shown to have a neurotrophic effect in animal models of neurological disease. hNPCs survive and mature following transplantation into the central nervous system of large and small animals including the rat model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Here we report that hNPCs engineered to express glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) survive long-term (7.5 months) following transplantation into the spinal cord of athymic nude rats and continue to secrete GDNF. Cell proliferation declined while the number of astrocytes increased, suggesting final maturation of the cells over time in vivo. Together these data show that GDNF-producing hNPCs may be useful as a source of cells for long-term delivery of both astrocytes and GDNF to the damaged central nervous system.

Endomicroscopy and electromyography of neuromuscular junctions in situ

Objective

Electromyography (EMG) is used routinely to diagnose neuromuscular dysfunction in a wide range of peripheral neuropathies, myopathies, and neuromuscular degenerative diseases including motor neuron diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Definitive neurological diagnosis may also be indicated by the analysis of pathological neuromuscular innervation in motor-point biopsies. Our objective in this study was to preempt motor-point biopsy by combining live imaging with electrophysiological analysis of slow degeneration of neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) in vivo.

Methods

We combined conventional needle electromyography with fiber-optic confocal endomicroscopy (CEM), using an integrated hand-held, 1.5-mm-diameter probe. We utilized as a test bed, various axotomized muscles in the hind limbs of anaesthetized, double-homozygous thy1.2YFP16: Wld^S mice, which coexpress the Wallerian-degeneration Slow (Wld^S) protein and yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) in motor neurons. We also tested exogenous vital stains, including Alexa488-α-bungarotoxin; the styryl pyridinium dye 4-Di-2-Asp; and a GFP conjugate of botulinum toxin Type A heavy chain (GFP-HcBoNT/A).

Results

We show that an integrated EMG/CEM probe is effective in longitudinal evaluation of functional and morphological changes that take place over a 7-day period during axotomy-induced, slow neuromuscular synaptic degeneration. EMG amplitude declined in parallel with overt degeneration of motor nerve terminals. EMG/CEM was safe and effective when nerve terminals and motor endplates were selectively stained with vital dyes.

Interpretation

Our findings constitute proof-of-concept, based on live imaging in an animal model, that combining EMG/CEM may be useful as a minimally invasive precursor or alternative to motor-point biopsy in neurological diagnosis and for monitoring local administration of potential therapeutics.

Spinal muscular atrophy: journeying from bench to bedside

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a frequently fatal neuromuscular disorder and the most common inherited cause of infant mortality. SMA results from reduced levels of the survival of motor neuron (SMN) protein. Although the disease was first described more than a century ago, a precise understanding of its genetics was not obtained until the SMA genes were cloned in 1995. This was followed in rapid succession by experiments that assigned a role to the SMN protein in the proper splicing of genes, novel animal models of the disease, and the eventual use of the models in the pre clinical development of rational therapies for SMA. These successes have led the scientific and clinical communities to the cusp of what are expected to be the first truly promising treatments for the human disorder. Yet, important questions remain, not the least of which is how SMN paucity triggers a predominantly neuromuscular phenotype. Here we review how our understanding of the disease has evolved since the SMA genes were identified. We begin with a brief description of the genetics of SMA and the proposed roles of the SMN protein. We follow with an examination of how the genetics of the disease was exploited to develop genetically faithful animal models, and highlight the insights gained from their analysis. We end with a discussion of ongoing debates, future challenges, and the most promising treatments to have emerged from our current knowledge of the disease.

Human induced pluripotent stem cells are a novel source of neural progenitor cells (iNPCs) that migrate and integrate in the rodent spinal cord

Transplantation of human neural progenitor cells (NPCs) into the brain or spinal cord to replace lost cells, modulate the injury environment, or create a permissive milieu to protect and regenerate host neurons is a promising therapeutic strategy for neurological diseases. Deriving NPCs from human fetal tissue is feasible, although problematic issues include limited sources and ethical concerns. Here we describe a new and abundant source of NPCs derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). A novel chopping technique was used to transform adherent iPSCs into free-floating spheres that were easy to maintain and were expandable (EZ spheres) (Ebert et al. [2013] Stem Cell Res 10:417-427). These EZ spheres could be differentiated towards NPC spheres with a spinal cord phenotype using a combination of all-trans retinoic acid (RA) and epidermal growth factor (EGF) and fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) mitogens. Suspension cultures of NPCs derived from human iPSCs or fetal tissue have similar characteristics, although they were not similar when grown as adherent cells. In addition, iPSC-derived NPCs (iNPCs) survived grafting into the spinal cord of athymic nude rats with no signs of overgrowth and with a very similar profile to human fetal-derived NPCs (fNPCs). These results suggest that human iNPCs behave like fNPCs and could thus be a valuable alternative for cellular regenerative therapies of neurological diseases.

The past, present and future of stem cell clinical trials for ALS

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a devastating neurodegenerative disorder that is characterized by progressive degeneration of motor neurons in the cortex, brainstem and spinal cord. This leads to paralysis, respiratory insufficiency and death within an average of 3 to 5 years from disease onset. While the genetics of ALS are becoming more understood in familial cases, the mechanisms underlying disease pathology remain unclear and there are no effective treatment options. Without understanding what causes ALS it is difficult to design treatments. However, in recent years stem cell transplantation has emerged as a potential new therapy for ALS patients. While motor neuron replacement remains a focus of some studies trying to treat ALS with stem cells, there is more rationale for using stem cells as support cells for dying motor neurons as they are already connected to the muscle. This could be through reducing inflammation, releasing growth factors, and other potential less understood mechanisms. Prior to moving into patients, stringent pre-clinical studies are required that have at least some rationale and efficacy in animal models and good safety profiles. However, given our poor understanding of what causes ALS and whether stem cells may ameliorate symptoms, there should be a push to determine cell safety in pre-clinical models and then a quick translation to the clinic where patient trials will show if there is any efficacy. Here, we provide a critical review of current clinical trials using either mesenchymal or neural stem cells to treat ALS patients. Pre-clinical data leading to these trials, as well as those in development are also evaluated in terms of mechanisms of action, validity of conclusions and rationale for advancing stem cell treatment strategies for this devastating disorder.

Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: what do we know?

ABSTRACT: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal adult-onset motor neuron disease that results from the progressive loss of motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord, and of upper motor neurons in the motor cortex. TDP-43 was the first protein identified in ALS. It is present in cytoplasmic inclusions in motor neurons of affected patient brains and spinal cords, a hallmark feature of this disease. Successive studies have identified missense mutations in TARDBP, and, to date, more than 40 mutations have been identified. Recent studies have indicated that altered RNA metabolism is a key feature of ALS. This article reviews an emerging role of heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins driving disease pathogenesis that include TDP-43, FUS, hnRNPA1, hnRNPA2/B1 and hnRNPA3. Determining the molecular pathways involved may provide a promising prospect for heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins being potential biomarkers in ALS in order to develop therapeutic strategies for mitigating this disease, for which there is currently no cure.

Neurodegeneration in spinal muscular atrophy: from disease phenotype and animal models to therapeutic strategies and beyond

Of the numerous inherited diseases known to afflict the pediatric population, spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is among the most common. It has an incidence of approximately one in 10,000 newborns and a carrier frequency of one in 50. Despite its relatively high incidence, SMA remains somewhat obscure among the many neurodegenerative diseases that affect humans. Nevertheless, the last two decades have witnessed remarkable progress in our understanding of the pathology, underlying biology and especially the molecular genetics of SMA. This has led to a genuine expectation within the scientific community that a robust treatment will be available to patients before the end of the decade. The progress made in our understanding of SMA and, therefore, towards a viable therapy for affected individuals is in large measure a consequence of the simple yet fascinating genetics of the disease. Nevertheless, important questions remain. Addressing these questions promises not only to accelerate the march towards a cure for SMA, but also to uncover novel therapies for related neurodegenerative disorders. This review discusses our current understanding of SMA, considers the challenges ahead, describes existing treatment options and highlights state-of-the-art research being conducted as a means to a better, safer and more effective treatment for the disease.

Barriers to novel therapeutics in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

SUMMARY Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is a devastating neurodegenerative condition primarily involving the motor system in the cerebral cortex, brain stem and spinal cord, but can, in later disease stages, also affect distinct extramotor brain regions. In this article, we discuss the prevalent barriers, including clinical and genetic variability of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frailty of the current mouse model and inadequateness of clinical trials, in the search for novel therapeutics. Approaches in terms of understanding the pathogenesis, and the search for biomarkers to initiate early or even presymptomatic treatment and monitor treatment effects are highlighted.

Transplantation of mesenchymal stem cells in ALS

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a devastating incurable, neurodegenerative disease that targets motor neurons (MNs) in the primary motor cortex, brainstem, and spinal cord, leading to muscle atrophy, paralysis, and death due to respiratory failure within 2-5 years. Currently, there is no cure for ALS. The development of a therapy that can support or restore MN function and attenuate toxicity in the spinal cord provides the most comprehensive approach for treating ALS. Mesenchymal stem cells might be suitable for cell therapy in ALS because of their immunomodulatory and protective properties. In this review, the authors discuss the major challenges to the translation of in vitro and animal studies of MSCs therapy in the clinical setting.

Improved lentiviral transduction of ALS motoneurons in vivo via dual targeting

Treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a progressive neurodegenerative disease, is hampered by its complex etiology and lack of efficient means for targeted transfer of therapeutics into motoneurons. The objective of this research was engineering of a versatile motoneuron targeting adapter--a full-length atoxic tetanus toxin fused to core-streptavidin (CS-TeTIM)--for retro-axonal transduction of viral vectors; validation of the targeting efficiency of CS-TeTIM in vivo, by expression of green fluorescence protein (GFP) reporter in motoneurons of presymptomatic and symptomatic ALS-like SOD1(G93A) mice, and comparison with age-matched controls; and appraisal of lentiviral transduction with CS-TeTIM relative to (1) a HC binding fragment of tetanus toxin CS-TeTx(HC), (2) rabies glycoprotein (RG), and (3) a CS-TeTIM-RG dual targeting approach. CS-TeTIM and CS-TeTx(HC) were engineered using recombinant technology and site-directed mutagenesis. Biotinylated vectors, pseudotyped with vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein (VSV-G) or RG, were linked to these adaptors and injected intraperitoneally (ip) into presymptomatic (12 weeks old), symptomatic SOD1(G93A) (22 weeks old) or wild type control mice, followed by monitoring of GFP expression in the spinal cord and supraspinal motor structures with quantitative PCR and immuno-histochemistry. Transcripts were detected in the spinal cord and supraspinal motor structures of all mice 2 weeks after receiving a single ip injection, although in symptomatic SOD1(G93A) animals reporter RNA levels were lower compared to presymptomatic and wild-type controls irrespective of the targeting approach. GFP transduction with CS-TeTIM proved more efficient than CS-TeTx(HC) across all groups while CS-TeTIM-RG dual-targeted vectors yielded the highest transcript numbers. Importantly, in both wild-type and presymptomatic SOD1(G93A) mice strong colabeling of choline-acetyltransferase (ChAT) and GFP was visualized in neurons of the brain stem and spinal cord. CS-TeTIM, a versatile adaptor protein for targeted lentiviral transduction of motoneurons, has been engineered and its competence assessed relative to CS-TeTx(HC) and RG. Evidence has been provided that highlights the potential usefulness of this novel recombinant tool for basic research with implications for improved transfer of therapeutic candidates into motoneurons for the amelioration of ALS and related diseases.

Minimally invasive transplantation of iPSC-derived ALDHhiSSCloVLA4+ neural stem cells effectively improves the phenotype of an amyotrophic lateral sclerosis model

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurological disease characterized by the degeneration of motor neurons. Currently, there is no effective therapy for ALS. Stem cell transplantation is a potential therapeutic strategy for ALS, and the reprogramming of adult somatic cells into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) represents a novel cell source. In this study, we isolated a specific neural stem cell (NSC) population from human iPSCs based on high aldehyde dehydrogenase activity, low side scatter and integrin VLA4 positivity. We assessed the therapeutic effects of these NSCs on the phenotype of ALS mice after intrathecal or intravenous injections. Transplanted NSCs migrated and engrafted into the central nervous system via both routes of injection. Compared with control ALS, treated ALS mice exhibited improved neuromuscular function and motor unit pathology and significantly increased life span, in particular with the systemic administration of NSCs (15%). These positive effects are linked to multiple mechanisms, including production of neurotrophic factors and reduction of micro- and macrogliosis. NSCs induced a decrease in astrocyte number through the activation of the vanilloid receptor TRPV1. We conclude that minimally invasive injections of iPSC-derived NSCs can exert a therapeutic effect in ALS. This study contributes to advancements in iPSC-mediated approaches for treating ALS and other neurodegenerative diseases.

Acute stimulation of transplanted neurons improves motoneuron survival, axon growth, and muscle reinnervation

Few options exist for treatment of pervasive motoneuron death after spinal cord injury or in neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Local transplantation of embryonic motoneurons into an axotomized peripheral nerve is a promising approach to arrest the atrophy of denervated muscles; however, muscle reinnervation is limited by poor motoneuron survival. The aim of the present study was to test whether acute electrical stimulation of transplanted embryonic neurons promotes motoneuron survival, axon growth, and muscle reinnervation. The sciatic nerve of adult Fischer rats was transected to mimic the widespread denervation seen after disease or injury. Acutely dissociated rat embryonic ventral spinal cord cells were transplanted into the distal tibial nerve stump as a neuron source for muscle reinnervation. Immediately post-transplantation, the cells were stimulated at 20 Hz for 1 h. Other groups were used to control for the cell transplantation and stimulation. When neurons were stimulated acutely, there were significantly more neurons, including cholinergic neurons, 10 weeks after transplantation. This led to enhanced numbers of myelinated axons, reinnervation of more muscle fibers, and more medial and lateral gastrocnemius muscles were functionally connected to the transplant. Reinnervation reduced muscle atrophy significantly. These data support the concept that electrical stimulation rescues transplanted motoneurons and facilitates muscle reinnervation.

Synergistic effects of GDNF and VEGF on lifespan and disease progression in a familial ALS rat model

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease characterized by the progressive loss of motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord. We have recently shown that human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) modified to release glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) decrease disease progression in a rat model of ALS when delivered to skeletal muscle. In the current study, we determined whether or not this effect could be enhanced by delivering GDNF in concert with other trophic factors. hMSC engineered to secrete GDNF (hMSC-GDNF), vascular endothelial growth factor (hMSC-VEGF), insulin-like growth factor-I (hMSC-IGF-I), or brain-derived neurotrophic factor (hMSC-BDNF), were prepared and transplanted bilaterally into three muscle groups. hMSC-GDNF and hMSC-VEGF prolonged survival and slowed the loss of motor function, but hMSC-IGF-I and hMSC-BDNF did not have any effect. We then tested the efficacy of a combined ex vivo delivery of GDNF and VEGF in extending survival and protecting neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) and motor neurons. Interestingly, the combined delivery of these neurotrophic factors showed a strong synergistic effect. These studies further support ex vivo gene therapy approaches for ALS that target skeletal muscle.

Stem cells in regenerative medicine

BACKGROUND

A number of cardiovascular, neurological, musculoskeletal and other diseases have a limited capacity for repair and only a modest progress has been made in treatment of brain diseases. The discovery of stem cells has opened new possibilities for the treatment of these maladies, and cell therapy now stands at the cutting-edge of modern regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. Experimental data and the first clinical trials employing stem cells have shown their broad therapeutic potential and have brought hope to patients suffering from devastating pathologies of different organs and systems.

AIMS

Here, we briefly review the main achievements and trends in cell-based therapy, with an emphasis on the main types of stem cells: embryonic, mesenchymal stromal and induced pluripotent cells.

DISCUSSION

Many questions regarding the application of stem cells remain unanswered, particularly tumorigenicity, immune rejection and danger of gene manipulation. Currently, only MSC seems to be safe and might be considered to be a leading candidate for human application to treat pathologies that affect the cardiovascular, neurological and musculoskeletal systems.

Stem cells in regenerative medicine

BACKGROUND

A number of cardiovascular, neurological, musculoskeletal and other diseases have a limited capacity for repair and only a modest progress has been made in treatment of brain diseases. The discovery of stem cells has opened new possibilities for the treatment of these maladies, and cell therapy now stands at the cutting-edge of modern regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. Experimental data and the first clinical trials employing stem cells have shown their broad therapeutic potential and have brought hope to patients suffering from devastating pathologies of different organs and systems.

AIMS

Here, we briefly review the main achievements and trends in cell-based therapy, with an emphasis on the main types of stem cells: embryonic, mesenchymal stromal and induced pluripotent cells.

DISCUSSION

Many questions regarding the application of stem cells remain unanswered, particularly tumorigenicity, immune rejection and danger of gene manipulation. Currently, only MSC seems to be safe and might be considered to be a leading candidate for human application to treat pathologies that affect the cardiovascular, neurological and musculoskeletal systems.

The changing scene of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Several recent breakthroughs have provided notable insights into the pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), with some even shifting our thinking about this neurodegenerative disease and raising the question as to whether this disorder is a proteinopathy, a ribonucleopathy or both. In addition, these breakthroughs have revealed mechanistic links between ALS and frontotemporal dementia, as well as between ALS and other neurodegenerative diseases, such as the cerebellar atrophies, myotonic dystrophy and inclusion body myositis. Here, we summarize the new findings in ALS research, discuss what they have taught us about this disease and examine issues that are still outstanding.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: new insights into underlying molecular mechanisms and opportunities for therapeutic intervention

Recent years have witnessed a renewed interest in the pathogenic mechanisms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a late-onset progressive degeneration of motor neurons. The discovery of new genes associated with the familial form of the disease, along with a deeper insight into pathways already described for this disease, has led scientists to reconsider previous postulates. While protein misfolding, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative damage, defective axonal transport, and excitotoxicity have not been dismissed, they need to be re-examined as contributors to the onset or progression of ALS in the light of the current knowledge that the mutations of proteins involved in RNA processing, apparently unrelated to the previous "old partners," are causative of the same phenotype. Thus, newly envisaged models and tools may offer unforeseen clues on the etiology of this disease and hopefully provide the key to treatment.