A positive feedback loop between AlkB homolog 5 and miR-193a-3p promotes growth and metastasis in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

Non‑coding RNA: A promising diagnostic biomarker and therapeutic target for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (Review)

Esophageal cancer (EC) is a common form of malignant tumor in the digestive system that is classified into two types: Esophageal squamous cell carcinomas (ESCC) and esophageal adenocarcinoma. ESCC is known for its early onset of symptoms, which can be difficult to identify, as well as its rapid progression and tendency to develop drug resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. These factors contribute to the high incidence of disease and low cure rate. Therefore, a diagnostic biomarker and therapeutic target need to be identified for ESCC. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are a class of molecules that are transcribed from DNA but do not encode proteins. Initially, ncRNAs were considered to be non-functional segments generated during transcription. However, with advancements in high-throughput sequencing technologies in recent years, ncRNAs have been associated with poor prognosis, drug resistance and progression of ESCC. The present study provides a comprehensive overview of the biogenesis, characteristics and functions of ncRNAs, particularly focusing on microRNA, long ncRNAs and circular RNAs. Furthermore, the ncRNAs that could potentially be used as diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets for ESCC are summarized to highlight their application value and prospects in ESCC.

Suxiao Jiuxin Pill alleviates myocardial ischemia/reperfusion-induced autophagy via miR-193a-3p/ALKBH5 pathway

BACKGROUND

Myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury (MIRI) poses a formidable challenge to cardiac reperfusion therapy due to the absence of effective clinical interventions. Methylation of N6-methyladenosine (m6A), which is the most common post-transcriptional modifications occurring within mammalian mRNA, is believed to be involved in MIRI by modulating autophagy. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play a crucial role in regulating gene expression at the post-transcriptional level and have been implicated in the regulation of m6A methylation. Suxiao Jiuxin Pill (SJP) is extensively used in China for the clinical treatment of angina pectoris and confers benefits to patients with acute coronary syndrome who have received percutaneous coronary intervention. However, the precise mechanisms underlying SJP intervention in MIRI remain unclear.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to demonstrate, both in vivo and in vitro, that SJP could alleviate autophagy in MIRI by regulating miR-193a-3p to target and upregulate the demethylase ALKBH5.

METHODS

An in vitro hypoxia/reoxygenation model was established using H9c2 cells, while an in vivo MIRI model was established using Wistar rats. A lentivirus harboring the precursor sequence of miR-193a-3p was employed for its overexpression. Adeno-associated viruses were used to silence both miR-193a-3p and ALKBH5 expressions. Cardiac function, infarct size, and tissue structure in rats were assessed using echocardiography, triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining, and HE staining, respectively. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) was employed to detect the levels of apoptosis in rat cardiac tissue. m6A methylation levels were assessed using colorimetry. GFP-RFP-LC3B was used to monitor autophagic flux and transmission electron microscopy was used to evaluate the development of autophagosomes. Western Blot and qRT-PCR were respectively employed to assess the levels of autophagy-related proteins and miR-193a-3p.

RESULTS

SJP alleviated autophagy, preserved cardiac function, and minimized myocardial damage in the hearts of MIRI rats. SJP attenuated autophagy in H/R H9C2 cells. Elevated levels of miR-193a-3p were observed in the cardiac tissues of MIRI rats and H/R H9C2 cells, whereas SJP downregulated miR-193a-3p levels in these models. ALKBH5, a target gene of miR-193, is negatively regulated by miR-193a-3p. Upon overexpression of miR-193a-3p or silencing of ALKBH5, m6A methylation decreased, and the autophagy-attenuating effects of SJP and its components, senkyunolide A and l-borneol, were lost in H/R H9C2 cells, whereas in MIRI rats, these effects were not abolished but merely weakened. Further investigation indicated that the METTL3 inhibitor STM2475, combined with the silencing of miR-193a-3p, similarly attenuated autophagy in the hearts of MIRI rats. This suggests that a reduction in m6A methylation is involved in autophagy alleviation.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrated that SJP mitigates autophagy in MIRI by downregulating miR-193a-3p, enhancing ALKBH5 expression, and reducing m6A methylation, a mechanism potentially attributed to its constituents, senkyunolide A and l-borneol.

New understandings of the genetic regulatory relationship between non-coding RNAs and m6A modification

One of the most frequent epigenetic modifications of RNA in eukaryotes is N6 methyladenosine (m6A), which is mostly present in messenger RNAs. Through the influence of several RNA processing stages, m6A modification is a crucial approach for controlling gene expression, especially in cancer progression. It is universally acknowledged that numerous non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), such as microRNAs, circular RNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and piRNAs, are also significantly affected by m6A modification, and the complex genetic regulatory relationship between m6A and ncRNAs plays a pivotal role in the development of cancer. The connection between m6A modifications and ncRNAs offers an opportunity to explore the oncogene potential regulatory mechanisms and suggests that m6A modifications and ncRNAs could be vital biomarkers for multiple cancers. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms of interaction between m6A methylation and ncRNAs in cancer, and we also summarize diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for clinical cancer detection. Furthermore, our article includes some methodologies for identifying m6A sites when assessing biomarker potential.

Crosstalk Between m6A RNA Methylation and miRNA Biogenesis in Cancer: An Unholy Nexus

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is one of the most prevalent internal reversible chemical modification of RNAs in eukaryotes, which has attracted widespread attention recently owing to its regulatory roles in a plethora of normal developmental processes and human diseases like cancer. Deposition of the m6A mark on RNAs is mediated by the dynamic interplay between m6A regulatory proteins such as m6A RNA methyltransferases (m6A writers), m6A RNA demethylases (m6A erasers) and m6A RNA binding proteins (m6A readers). m6A regulators are ectopically expressed in various cancer types, often leading to aberrant expression of tumor-suppressor and oncogenic mRNAs either directly or indirectly via regulating the biogenesis of non-coding RNAs like miRNAs. miRNAs are tiny regulators of gene expression, which often impact various hallmarks of cancer and thus influence tumorigenesis. It is becoming increasingly clear that m6A RNA modification impacts biogenesis and function of miRNAs, and recent studies have interestingly, uncovered many miRNAs whose biogenesis and function are regulated by m6A writers, erasers and readers. In this review, we discuss various mechanisms by which m6A RNA methylation regulates miRNA biogenesis, the functional crosstalk between m6A RNA methylation and miRNAs and how it modulates various aspects of tumorigenesis. The potential of m6A RNA methylation regulated miRNAs as biomarkers and novel therapeutic targets to treat various cancers is also addressed.

The implications of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification in esophageal carcinoma

Esophageal carcinoma (EC) is always diagnosed at advanced stage and its the mortality rate remains high. The patients usually miss the best opportunity for treatment because of non-specific symptoms and the survival rates are low. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) the predominant modification in eukaryotic messenger RNA(mRNA), serves vital roles in numerous bioprocess. This chemical modification is dynamic, reversible and consists of three regulators: m6A methyltransferases (writers), demethylases (erasers) and m6A-binding proteins (readers). Recently, a growing number of evidences have indicated relationships between m6A and EC. Whereas, lacking of cognition about the molecular mechanism of m6A modification in esophageal carcinoma. We will focus on the biological function roles of m6A modification in the tumorigenesis and development of EC. Recent studies showed that immunotherapy had a positive impact on EC. The relationship between m6A and immunotherapy in EC deserves further research and discussion. We will also discuss the potential clinical applications regarding diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of m6A modification for EC and provide perspectives for further studies.

Role of m6A modification in immune microenvironment of digestive system tumors

Digestive system tumors are huge health problem worldwide, largely attributable to poor dietary choices. The role of RNA modifications in cancer development is an emerging field of research. RNA modifications are associated with the growth and development of various immune cells, which, in turn, regulate the immune response. The majority of RNA modifications are methylation modifications, and the most common type is the N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification. Here, we reviewed the molecular mechanism of m6A in the immune cells and the role of m6A in the digestive system tumors. However, further studies are required to better understand the role of RNA methylation in human cancers for designing diagnostic and treatment strategies and predicting the prognosis of patients.

The diverse role of RNA methylation in esophageal cancer

Esophageal cancer is one of the major life-threatening diseases in the world. RNA methylation is the most common post-transcriptional modification and a wide-ranging regulatory system controlling gene expression. Numerous studies have revealed that dysregulation of RNA methylation is critical for cancer development and progression. However, the diverse role of RNA methylation and its regulators in esophageal cancer remains to be elucidated and summarized. In this review, we focus on the regulation of major RNA methylation, including m ⁶A, m ⁵C, and m ⁷G, as well as the expression patterns and clinical implications of its regulators in esophageal cancer. We systematically summarize how these RNA modifications affect the "life cycle" of target RNAs, including mRNA, microRNA, long non-coding RNA, and tRNA. The downstream signaling pathways associated with RNA methylation during the development and treatment of esophageal cancer are also discussed in detail. Further studies on how these modifications function together in the microenvironment of esophageal cancer will draw a clearer picture of the clinical application of novel and specific therapeutic strategies.

Roles of oncogenes in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma and their therapeutic potentials

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is the most common type of esophageal cancer (EC) in Asia. It is a malignant digestive tract tumor with abundant gene mutations. Due to the lack of specific diagnostic markers and early cancer screening markers, most patients are diagnosed at an advanced stage. Genetic and epigenetic changes are closely related to the occurrence and development of ESCC. Here, We review the activation of proto-oncogenes into oncogenes through gene mutation and gene amplification in ESCC from a genetic and epigenetic genome perspective, We also discuss the specific regulatory mechanisms through which these oncogenes mainly affect the biological function and occurrence and development of ESCC through specific regulatory mechanisms. In addition, we summarize the clinical application value of these oncogenes is summarized, and it provides a feasible direction for clinical use as potential therapeutic and diagnostic markers.

The Role of m6A Modification and m6A Regulators in Esophageal Cancer

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification, the most prevalent RNA modification, is involved in all aspects of RNA metabolism, including RNA processing, nuclear export, stability, translation and degradation. Therefore, m6A modification can participate in various physiological functions, such as tissue development, heat shock response, DNA damage response, circadian clock control and even in carcinogenesis through regulating the expression or structure of the gene. The deposition, removal and recognition of m6A are carried out by methyltransferases, demethylases and m6A RNA binding proteins, respectively. Aberrant m6A modification and the dysregulation of m6A regulators play critical roles in the occurrence and development of various cancers. The pathogenesis of esophageal cancer (ESCA) remains unclear and the five-year survival rate of advanced ESCA patients is still dismal. Here, we systematically reviewed the recent studies of m6A modification and m6A regulators in ESCA and comprehensively analyzed the role and possible mechanism of m6A modification and m6A regulators in the occurrence, progression, remedy and prognosis of ESCA. Defining the effect of m6A modification and m6A regulators in ESCA might be helpful for determining the pathogenesis of ESCA and providing some ideas for an early diagnosis, individualized treatment and improved prognosis of ESCA patients.

The proteasome-dependent degradation of ALKBH5 regulates ECM deposition in PM2.5 exposure-induced pulmonary fibrosis of mice

Long-term inhalation of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) can cause serious effects on the respiratory system. It might be attributed to the fact that PM_2.5 could directly enter and deposit in lung tissues. We established models of PM_2.5 exposure in vivo and in vitro to explore the adverse effects of ambient PM_2.5 on pulmonary and its potential pathogenic mechanisms. Our results showed that PM_2.5 exposure promoted the deposition of ECM and the increased stiffness of the lungs, and then led to pulmonary fibrosis in time- and dose- dependent manners. Pulmonary function test showed restrictive ventilation function in mice after PM_2.5 exposure. After PM_2.5 exposure, ALKBH5 was recognized by TRIM11 and then degraded through the proteasome pathway. ALKBH5 deficiency (ALKBH5^-/-) aggravated restrictive ventilatory disorder and promoted ECM deposition in lungs of mice induced by PM2.5. And the YAP1 signaling pathway was more activated in ALKBH5^-/- than WT mice after PM_2.5 exposure. In consequence, decreased ALKBH5 protein levels regulated miRNAs and then the miRNAs-targeted YAP1 signaling was activated to promote pulmonary fibrosis induced by PM_2.5.

Role of main RNA modifications in cancer: N6-methyladenosine, 5-methylcytosine, and pseudouridine

Cancer is one of the major diseases threatening human life and health worldwide. Epigenetic modification refers to heritable changes in the genetic material without any changes in the nucleic acid sequence and results in heritable phenotypic changes. Epigenetic modifications regulate many biological processes, such as growth, aging, and various diseases, including cancer. With the advancement of next-generation sequencing technology, the role of RNA modifications in cancer progression has become increasingly prominent and is a hot spot in scientific research. This review studied several common RNA modifications, such as N⁶-methyladenosine, 5-methylcytosine, and pseudouridine. The deposition and roles of these modifications in coding and noncoding RNAs are summarized in detail. Based on the RNA modification background, this review summarized the expression, function, and underlying molecular mechanism of these modifications and their regulators in cancer and further discussed the role of some existing small-molecule inhibitors. More in-depth studies on RNA modification and cancer are needed to broaden the understanding of epigenetics and cancer diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis.

RNA demethylase ALKBH5 in cancer: from mechanisms to therapeutic potential

RNA demethylase ALKBH5 takes part in the modulation of N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) modification and controls various cell processes. ALKBH5-mediated m⁶A demethylation regulates gene expression by affecting multiple events in RNA metabolism, e.g., pre-mRNA processing, mRNA decay and translation. Mounting evidence shows that ALKBH5 plays critical roles in a variety of human malignancies, mostly via post-transcriptional regulation of oncogenes or tumor suppressors in an m⁶A-dependent manner. Meanwhile, increasing non-coding RNAs are recognized as functional targets of ALKBH5 in cancers. Here we reviewed up-to-date findings about the pathological roles of ALKBH5 in cancer, the molecular mechanisms by which it exerts its functions, as well as the underlying mechanism of its dysregulation. We also discussed the therapeutic implications of targeting ALKBH5 in cancer and potential ALKBH5-targeting strategies.

Emerging Roles of N6-Methyladenosine Demethylases and Its Interaction with Environmental Toxicants in Digestive System Cancers

Digestive system cancers are common cancers with high cancer deaths worldwide. They have become a major threat to public health and economic burden. As one of the most universal RNA modifications in eukaryotes, the N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification is involved in the occurrence, development, prognosis, and treatment response of various cancers, including digestive system cancers. M6A demethylases shape the m6A landscape dynamically, playing important roles in cancers. In addition, accumulating evidence reveal that many environmental toxicants are the established risk factors for digestive system cancers and associated with m6A modification. In this review, we summarize the multiple functions of M6A demethylases (fat mass and obesity-associated protein (FTO), AlkB homolog 5 (ALKBH5) and AlkB homolog 3 (ALKBH3)) in digestive system cancers, which are aberrantly expressed and affect cancer progression. We also discuss the potential roles of m6A demethylases in the assessment of environmental exposure, the signature for prevention and diagnosis of digestive system cancers.

Recent advances of m6A methylation modification in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

In recent years, with the development of RNA sequencing technology and bioinformatics methods, the epigenetic modification of RNA based on N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) has gradually become a research hotspot in the field of bioscience. m⁶A is the most abundant internal modification in eukaryotic messenger RNAs (mRNAs). m⁶A methylation modification can dynamically and reversibly regulate RNA transport, localization, translation and degradation through the interaction of methyltransferase, demethylase and reading protein. m⁶A methylation can regulate the expression of proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes at the epigenetic modification level to affect tumor occurrence and metastasis. The morbidity and mortality of esophageal cancer (EC) are still high worldwide. Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is the most common tissue subtype of EC. This article reviews the related concepts, biological functions and recent advances of m⁶A methylation in ESCC, and looks forward to the prospect of m⁶A methylation as a new diagnostic biomarker and potential therapeutic target for ESCC.

Significance of N6-Methyladenosine RNA Methylation Regulators in Immune Infiltrates of Ovarian Cancer

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA methylation regulators play an important role in the occurrence and development of tumors. Here, we aimed to identify the potential roles of m6A RNA methylation regulators in immune infiltrates of ovarian cancer. We obtained two distinct m6A patterns (m6Acluster.A and m6Acluster.B) based on the expression levels of all 21 m6A RNA methylation regulators from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database using a consensus clustering algorithm. Differential analysis of m6Acluster.A and m6Acluster.B identified 196 m6A-related genes. We further validated the m6A regulation mechanism based on the 196 m6A-related genes using another consensus clustering algorithm. Considering individual differences, principal component analysis algorithms were used to calculate an m6A score for each sample in order to quantify the m6A patterns. A low m6A score was associated with immune activation and enhanced response to immune checkpoint inhibitors, whereas a high m6A score was associated with tumor progression. Finally, we successfully verified the correlation between m6A regulators and immune microenvironment in OC using our microarray analysis data. In summary, m6A regulators play non-negligible roles in immune infiltrates of ovarian cancer. Our investigation of m6A patterns may help to guide future immunotherapy strategies for advanced ovarian cancer.

miRNA-193a-3p Regulates the AKT2 Pathway to Inhibit the Growth and Promote the Apoptosis of Glioma Cells by Targeting ALKBH5

Emerging evidence indicates that microRNA (miR)-193a-3p is involved in the tumor progression of various cancers. However, the biological functions and precise molecular mechanisms of miR-193a-3p in gliomas have not been well documented. Accordingly, this study focused on the tumor suppressor role and molecular mechanisms of miR-193a-3p in glioma cells. miR-193a-3p expression was determined by qRT-PCR in glioma tissues and cell lines. U251 and U87 glioma cells were transfected with a miR-193a-3p mimic. The effects of miR-193a-3p on cell growth and apoptosis were investigated using MTT, colony-forming, and flow cytometry assays. Overexpression of miR-193a-3p in U87 cells also significantly suppressed tumorigenicity and induced apoptosis in the xenograft mouse model. Luciferase assays were conducted to determine if ALKBH5 is a direct target of miR-193a-3p in glioma cells. Immunoprecipitation was used to explore the interaction between ALKBH5 and RAC-serine/threonine-protein kinase 2 (AKT2) in glioma cells. miR-193a-3p was downregulated in glioma tissues and cell lines. miR-193a-3p treatment suppressed proliferation and promoted apoptosis in both U251 and U87 cells. Bioinformatics analysis and luciferase reporter assay identified a novel miR-193a-3p target, ALKBH5. Notably, the antitumor effect of miR-193a-3p transfection in glioma cells may be due to the miR-193a-3p–induced inhibition of AKT2 expression caused by the suppression of ALKBH5 expression. Furthermore, immunoprecipitation indicated that ALKBH5 physically interacted with AKT2 through an RNA-independent mechanism in glioma cells. miR-193a-3p directly targets ALKBH5 to inhibit the growth and promote the apoptosis of glioma cells by suppressing the AKT2 pathway both in vitro and in vivo, and the physical interaction between ALKBH5 and AKT2 is essential for suppressing cell apoptosis by upregulating miR-193a-3p in glioma cells. Our study revealed that the antitumor effects of miR-193a-3p on glioma cells is due to ALKBH5 mediation of the AKT2-induced intrinsic apoptosis signaling pathway.