Eculizumab: A Review in Generalized Myasthenia Gravis

Long-Term Bone Density Changes and Fracture Risk in Myasthenia Gravis: Implications for FRAX® Tool Application

Myasthenia gravis (MG) patients often require long-term glucocorticoid therapy, which may affect bone health. This study aimed to assess long-term changes in bone mineral density (BMD), evaluate osteoporotic fracture incidence, and examine the relationship between MG-specific factors and bone health outcomes over a 10-year period. This single-center, prospective cohort study included 28 MG patients. BMD, T-scores, Z-scores, and bone turnover markers were measured at baseline. FRAX® scores were calculated and adjusted for glucocorticoid dose. Fracture occurrence was monitored for over 10 years. Five (17.9%) patients experienced major osteoporotic fractures during follow-up. The fracture group had significantly lower baseline BMD and T-scores than the no-fracture group. Baseline FRAX® scores for major osteoporotic fracture risk were significantly higher in the fracture group (median 19.0% vs. 5.7%, p = 0.001). The fracture group progressed from osteopenia at baseline to osteoporosis by the end of this study. This study highlights the importance of early and regular bone health assessments in MG patients, particularly those receiving long-term glucocorticoid therapy. The FRAX® tool may be valuable for fracture risk stratification in this population. These findings can inform clinical practice and improve long-term management strategies for MG patients who are at risk of osteoporotic fractures.

Prospective cohort study evaluating efficacy and safety of efgartigimod in Chinese generalized myasthenia gravis patients

Background

Despite the efficacy of efgartigimod demonstrated in ADAPT phase 3 trial, data specifically derived from Chinese participants are not available. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of efgartigimod in Chinese patients with generalized myasthenia gravis (gMG).

Methods

This is a prospective cohort study conducted in 8 hospitals across China. gMG patients received weekly intravenous infusions of efgartigimod (10 mg/kg) under a named patient program (NPP). The present study is an 8-week study, consisting of 4 consecutive doses of efgartigimod administered over 3 weeks (one cycle), followed by a 5-week follow-up period to assess the tolerability of efgartigimod's therapeutic effects. The primary outcome was the mean change in MG activities of daily living (MG-ADL) total score from baseline to 4 weeks. MG-ADL responder was defined as a ≥ 2-point improvement that persisted for 4 weeks, starting by week 4. Safety evaluations encompassed the monitoring of adverse events (AE) and serious AE (SAE) throughout the study.

Results

Between 5 July 2022 and 25 August 2023, a total of 14 gMG patients were included. The mean age was 57.7 years, with a mean MG-ADL score of 10.86 ± 3.32. At week 4, MG-ADL scores showed a mean reduction of 6 points, reaching a maximum decline of 13 points. Among the patients, 85.7% (12/14) achieved MG-ADL responder status after one cycle of treatment. The most significant reduction in quantitative MG (QMG) scores also occurred at week 4, with a mean decrease of 7 points. Notably, the improvements in MG-ADL and QMG scores persisted until week 8. During treatment and follow-up period, only two mild neck rashes occurred and resolved promptly. No infections or SAE were reported.

Discussion

A single cycle of efgartigimod treatment demonstrates effectiveness and the tolerability through week 8, with no new safety signals observed in Chinese gMG patients.

Refocusing generalized myasthenia gravis: Patient burden, disease profiles, and the role of evolving therapy

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Generalized myasthenia gravis (gMG) continues to present significant challenges for clinical management due to an unpredictable disease course, frequent disease fluctuations, and varying response to therapy. The recent availability of new pharmacologic therapies presents a valuable opportunity to reevaluate how this disease is classified, assessed, and managed and identify new ways to improve the clinical care of patients with gMG.

METHODS

Narrative review was made of publications identified via searches of PubMed and selected congresses (January 2000-September 2022).

RESULTS

New consensus definitions are required to ensure consistency, to better characterize patients, and to identify patients who will benefit from specific drugs and earlier use of these agents. There is a need for more frequent, standardized patient assessment to identify the cause of motor function deficits, provide a clearer picture of the disease burden and its impact on daily living and quality of life (QoL), and better support treatment decision-making. Novel approaches that target different components of the immune system will play a role in more precise treatment of patients with gMG, alongside the development of new algorithms to guide individualized patient management.

CONCLUSIONS

gMG has a physical, mental, and social impact, resulting in a considerable burden of disease and substantially decreased QoL, despite standard treatments. The availability of novel, targeted treatments that influence key pathological mediators of gMG, together with new biomarkers, offers the potential to optimize patient management and ultimately enables a greater number of patients to achieve minimal manifestation status and a reduced burden of disease.

Advancements and prospects of novel biologicals for myasthenia gravis: toward personalized treatment based on autoantibody specificities

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an antibody-mediated autoimmune disease with a prevalence of 150-250 cases per million individuals. Autoantibodies include long-lived antibodies against the acetylcholine receptor (AChR), mainly of the IgG1 subclass, and IgG4, produced almost exclusively by short-lived plasmablasts, which are prevalent in muscle-specific tyrosine kinase (MuSK) myasthenia gravis. Numerous investigations have demonstrated that MG patients receiving conventional medication today still do not possess satisfactory symptom control, indicating a substantial disease burden. Subsequently, based on the type of the autoantibody and the pathogenesis, we synthesized the published material to date and reached a conclusion regarding the literature related to personalized targeted therapy for MG. Novel agents for AChR MG have shown their efficacy in clinical research, such as complement inhibitors, FcRn receptor antagonists, and B-cell activating factor (BAFF) inhibitors. Rituximab, a representative drug of anti-CD20 therapy, has demonstrated benefits in treatment of MuSK MG patients. Due to the existence of low-affinity antibodies or unidentified antibodies that are inaccessible by existing methods, the treatment for seronegative MG remains complicated; thus, special testing and therapy considerations are necessary. It may be advantageous to initiate the application of novel biologicals at an early stage of the disease. Currently, therapies can also be combined and individualized according to different types of antibodies. With such a wide range of drugs, how to tailor treatment strategies to patients with various conditions and find the most suitable solution for each MG profile are our necessary and urgent aims.

Serious Bacterial Infections Associated with Eculizumab: A Pharmacovigilance Study

Objective Molecular-targeted agents, including eculizumab and rituximab, are considered treatment options for refractory myasthenia gravis (MG), but bacterial infections can occur as serious adverse events when using these agents. The present study elucidated the relative risks of bacterial infections associated with eculizumab and rituximab using a pharmacovigilance database. Methods We analyzed eculizumab- and rituximab-associated adverse events reported between 2007 and 2021 in the US Food and Drug Administration Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS) and herein report a refractory MG patient who developed streptococcal toxic shock syndrome during eculizumab treatment. Patients We evaluated a 74-year-old Japanese woman with refractory MG who developed severe bacteremia after receiving eculizumab. Results A total of 44,215 and 108,485 adverse events were reported with eculizumab and rituximab, respectively, from among 13,742,321 individual case safety reports in the FAERS database after data cleaning. We found a strong association between eculizumab and Neisseria infections. In contrast, we found only one case of meningococcal meningitis treated with rituximab. Both eculizumab and rituximab were weakly associated with streptococcal infections. Two cases of streptococcal toxic shock syndrome were associated with rituximab. Conclusion Careful monitoring of serious bacterial infections associated with eculizumab treatment is warranted.

An Updated Comprehensive Pharmacovigilance Study of Drug-Induced Thrombocytopenia Based on FDA Adverse Event Reporting System Data

Drug-induced thrombocytopenia (DIT) deserves both clinical and research attention for the serious clinical consequences and high prevalence of the condition. The current study aimed to perform a comprehensive pharmacovigilance analysis of DIT reported in the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS) database, with a particular focus on drugs associated with thrombocytopenia events. A disproportionality analysis of DIT was conducted using reports submitted to FARES from January 2004 to December 2022. Both the information component (IC) and reporting odds ratio (ROR) algorithms were applied to identify an association between target drugs and DIT events. A total of 15,940,383 cases were gathered in FAERS, 168,657 of which were related to DIT events. The top 50 drugs ranked by number of cases and ranked by signal strength were documented. The top 5 drugs ranked by number of cases were lenalidomide (10,601 cases), niraparib (3726 cases), ruxolitinib (3624 cases), eltrombopag (3483 cases), and heparin (3478 cases). The top 5 drugs ranked by signal strength were danaparoid (ROR 37.61, 95%CI 30.46-46.45), eptifibatide (ROR 34.75, 95%CI 30.65-39.4), inotersen (ROR 34.00, 95%CI 29.47-39.23), niraparib (ROR 30.53, 95%CI 29.42-31.69), and heparin (ROR 28.84, 95%CI 27.76-29.97). The top 3 involved drug groups were protein kinase inhibitors, antimetabolites, and monoclonal antibodies and antibody-drug conjugates. The current comprehensive pharmacovigilance study identified more drugs associated with thrombocytopenia. Although the mechanisms of DIT have been elucidated for some drugs, others still require further investigation.

Disseminated Cryptococcosis Post Eculizumab Therapy: A Case Report and Literature Review

Eculizumab is a biologic medication used for the treatment of complement-related disorders including anti-acetylcholine receptor antibody-positive generalized myasthenia gravis. It targets C5 complement, preventing its cleavage into active terminal components. Thus, vaccination against encapsulated organisms is advised before starting this treatment. C5 also has a critical role against Cryptococcus neoformans infection. Here, we present a case of a 34-year-old man with a history of myasthenia gravis who was treated with prednisone and azathioprine in addition to eculizumab that was added to his regimen about a year ago, and who came to the hospital with headache, and was found to have Cryptococcus meningitis with disseminated cryptococcosis. The patient was negative for human immunodeficiency virus. He was treated with antifungal medications, and his condition improved. Although rarely reported, it is important to have a low threshold for diagnosis of cryptococcosis in patients on eculizumab given its complement inhibition mechanism of action.

MuSK Myasthenia Gravis-Potential Pathomechanisms and Treatment Directed against Specific Targets

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune disease in which autoantibodies target structures within the neuromuscular junction, affecting neuromuscular transmission. Muscle-specific tyrosine kinase receptor-associated MG (MuSK-MG) is a rare, often more severe, subtype of the disease with different pathogenesis and specific clinical features. It is characterized by a more severe clinical course, more frequent complications, and often inadequate response to treatment. Here, we review the current state of knowledge about potential pathomechanisms of the MuSK-MG and their therapeutic implications as well as ongoing research in this field, with reference to key points of immune-mediated processes involved in the background of myasthenia gravis.

The complement system in neurodegenerative diseases

Complement is an important component of innate immune defence against pathogens and crucial for efficient immune complex disposal. These core protective activities are dependent in large part on properly regulated complement-mediated inflammation. Dysregulated complement activation, often driven by persistence of activating triggers, is a cause of pathological inflammation in numerous diseases, including neurological diseases. Increasingly, this has become apparent not only in well-recognized neuroinflammatory diseases like multiple sclerosis but also in neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases where inflammation was previously either ignored or dismissed as a secondary event. There is now a large and rapidly growing body of evidence implicating complement in neurological diseases that cannot be comprehensively addressed in a brief review. Here, we will focus on neurodegenerative diseases, including not only the 'classical' neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, but also two other neurological diseases where neurodegeneration is a neglected feature and complement is implicated, namely, schizophrenia, a neurodevelopmental disorder with many mechanistic features of neurodegeneration, and multiple sclerosis, a demyelinating disorder where neurodegeneration is a major cause of progressive decline. We will discuss the evidence implicating complement as a driver of pathology in these diverse diseases and address briefly the potential and pitfalls of anti-complement drug therapy for neurodegenerative diseases.

Advances in the long-term treatment of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder

Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) is a rare autoimmune neuroinflammatory disorder with a prevalence of 1-5/100,000 globally, characterized by attacks of the central nervous system including but not limited to optic neuritis, transverse myelitis and brainstem lesions, including area postrema lesions. These autoimmune attacks can lead to irreversible damage if left untreated, therefore strategies have been developed to prevent relapses. Initial off-label treatments have achieved variable levels of success in relapse prevention, but improved relapse prevention and quality of life remain a goal in the field. A better understanding of the underlying pathophysiology of NMOSD over the last 10 years has led to newer, more specific approaches in treatment, culminating in the first FDA approved treatments in the disease. In this review, we will discuss the seminal trials of PREVENT or Eculizumab in the treatment of aquaporin-4 (AQP4)-IgG positive NMOSD, N-Momentum or Inebilizumab in the study of NMOSD (both AQP4-IgG positive and negative) and SAkura Sky and SAkuraStar which studied satralizumab in AQP4-IgG seropositive and seronegative NMOSD patients. We will also discuss the extension trials of each of these medications and what lead to their approval in AQP4-IgG seropositive NMOSD patients. We will then examine treatments in the pipeline for adult and pediatric NMOSD patients and conclude with discussions on treatment considerations in pregnant patients and how to approach treatment of NMOSD patients during COVID.

Myasthenia Gravis with Toxic Goiter: Challenges with Management in a Low-Resource Setting in Africa; Review of Literature and Case Report

ABSTRACT

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an antibody-mediated autoimmune disease with the cardinal feature being exertional voluntary skeletal muscle weakness and fatigability. It can be an isolated finding or in association with other autoimmune conditions such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves' disease, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), or rheumatoid arthritis. Thymectomy is recommended for most patients with MG whose symptoms begin before the age of 60 years. Patients with thymoma or thymic hyperplasia do respond to thymectomy compared to those without thymoma or enlarged thymus. Those with enlarged goiter would benefit from thyroidectomy. The management of these patients requires a multidisciplinary approach as performed in a low-resource setting. We are reporting the case of a 24-year-old who presented with MG with toxic goiter and had good control on medication. A computed tomography scan of the chest showed a superior mediastinal mass and a soft tissue scan of the neck was done which showed a diffusely enlarged thyroid gland. She subsequently had thymectomy and subtotal thyroidectomy with a satisfactory outcome. We highlight this case to show that MG with thymoma and goiter could coexist. Reports of such findings are infrequently reported in our environment.

Myasthenia Gravis Treatment: From Old Drugs to Innovative Therapies with a Glimpse into the Future

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a rare autoimmune disease that causes debilitating muscle weakness due to impaired neuromuscular transmission. Since most (about 80-90%) MG patients present autoantibodies against the acetylcholine receptor, standard medical therapy consists of symptomatic treatment with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (e.g., pyridostigmine). In addition, considering the autoimmune basis of MG, standard therapy includes immunomodulating agents, such as corticosteroids, azathioprine, cyclosporine A, and cyclophosphamide. New strategies have been proposed for the treatment of MG and include complement blockade (i.e., eculizumab, ravulizumab, and zilucoplan) and neonatal Fc receptor antagonism (i.e., efgartigimod and rozanolixizumab). The aim of this review is to provide a detailed overview of the pre- and post-marketing evidence on the five pharmacological treatments most recently approved for the treatment of MG, by identifying both preclinical and clinical studies registered in clinicaltrials.gov. A description of the molecules currently under evaluation for the treatment of MG is also provided.

Monoclonal antibodies in neuro-ophthalmology

Neuro-ophthalmologic diseases include a broad range of disorders affecting the afferent and efferent visual pathways. Recently, monoclonal antibody (mAb) therapies have emerged as a promising targeted approach in the management of several of these complex conditions. Here, we describe the mechanism-specific applications and advancements in neuro-ophthalmologic mAb therapies. The application of mAbs in neuro-ophthalmologic diseases highlights our increasing understanding of disease-specific mechanisms in autoimmune conditions such as neuromyelitis optica, thyroid eye disease, and myasthenia gravis. Due to the specificity of mAb therapies, applications in neuro-ophthalmologic diseases have yielded exceptional clinical outcomes, including both reduced rate of relapse and progression to disability, visual function preservation, and quality of life improvement. These advancements have not only expanded the range of treatable neuro-ophthalmologic diseases but also reduced adverse events and increased the response rate to treatment. Further research into neuro-ophthalmologic disease mechanisms will provide accurate and specific targeting of important disease mediators through applications of future mAbs. As our understanding of these diseases and the relevant therapeutic targets evolve, we will continue to build on our understanding of how mAbs interfere with disease pathogenesis, and how these changes improve clinical outcomes and quality of life for patients.

Eculizumab in myasthenia gravis: A review

Eculizumab, a monoclonal antibody against complement C5, is a novel therapy to treat refractory myasthenia gravis (MG). The present review was undertaken to study the role of eculizumab in MG. This includes the drug's mechanism, pharmacokinetics, clinical trial findings, tolerability, side effects, safety, dosage, administration, and cost. An English-language search for relevant items was undertaken using Embase and PubMed from 1946 to present. Clinical trial registries/databases and websites were also searched for relevant data. Keywords were eculizumab and MG. The present review found 103 articles after initial screening. Current data support eculizumab as an effective, safe, and tolerable drug in cases of refractory MG. However, its cost can prevent it from being widely accessible to a majority of the general population.

Exacerbation of Thymoma-Associated Myasthenia Gravis Following Efgartigimod Treatment Related to Anti-acetylcholine Receptor Antibody Overshoot: A Report of Two Cases

Myasthenia gravis (MG), a chronic, autoimmune disease affecting the neuromuscular junction, arises from various autoantibodies, including those against the acetylcholine receptor (AChR). Recently, efgartigimod, a human IgG1 antibody Fc fragment engineered to reduce the pathogenic IgG autoantibody level, was developed as a treatment for MG. However, the long-term effects of the treatment are still unclear. The present report describes two novel cases of thymoma-associated MG exacerbation following efgartigimod treatment related to anti-AChR antibody overshoot. Both cases shared certain characteristics, including anti-AChR antibody positivity and post-thymectomy status. After a few cycles of efgartigimod treatment, their MG deteriorated, and their anti-AChR antibody titer exceeded the level before efgartigimod therapy. Prior studies show that anti-AChR antibody titer does not correlate with the disease severity of MG. However, previous studies have reported antibody overshoot following plasma exchange, which, like efgartigimod, reduces the level of plasma IgG and autoantibodies. Thus, MG exacerbation with anti-AChR antibody overshoot may be an adverse effect of both efgartigimod and plasma exchange. When clinical symptoms in patients with thymoma-associated MG receiving efgartigimod deteriorate despite low IgG, assessing the anti-AChR antibody level can be important for reconsidering the treatment strategy.

Myasthenia gravis: Molecular mechanisms and promising therapeutic strategies

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a type of autoimmune disease caused by the blockage of neuromuscular junction transmission owing to the attack of autoantibodies on transmission-related proteins. Related antibodies, such as anti-AChR, anti-MuSK and anti-LRP4 antibodies, can be detected in most patients with MG. Although traditional therapies can control most symptoms, several challenges remain to be addressed, necessitating the development of more effective and safe treatment strategies for MG. With the in-depth exploration on the mechanism and immune targets of MG, effective therapies, especially therapies using biologicals, have been reported recently. Given the important roles of immune cells, cytokines and intercellular interactions in the pathological process of MG, B-cell targeted therapy, T-cell targeted therapy, proteasome inhibitors targeting plasma cell, complement inhibitors, FcRn inhibitors have been developed for the treatment of MG. Although these novel therapies exert good therapeutic effects, they may weaken the immunity and increase the risk of infection in MG patients. This review elaborates on the pathogenesis of MG and discusses the advantages and disadvantages of the strategies of traditional treatment and biologicals. In addition, this review emphasises that combined therapy may have better therapeutic effects and reducing the risk of side effects of treatments, which has great prospects for the treatment of MG. With the deepening of research on immunotherapy targets in MG, novel opportunities and challenges in the treatment of MG will be introduced.

Real-world safety profile of eculizumab in patients with paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria, atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome, or generalized myasthenia gravis: an integrated analysis of post-marketing surveillance in Japan

Eculizumab is a C5 inhibitor approved for the treatment of paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH), atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome (aHUS), and anti-acetylcholine receptor antibody-positive generalized myasthenia gravis (AChR + gMG) in Japan. We report integrated safety data from post-marketing surveillance in these three indications, focusing on commonly occurring adverse events (AEs) and infection-related AEs. Of 1219 patients registered, 1055 (PNH: 780; aHUS: 192; AChR + gMG: 83) had available safety data. Total eculizumab exposure was 3977.361 patient-years. AEs were reported in 74.03% of patients. AEs with an incidence of  ≥ 1.0 per 100 patient-years included hemolysis, headache, nasopharyngitis, renal impairment, anemia, pneumonia, upper respiratory tract inflammation, influenza, condition aggravated, and infection. The incidence of infection-related AEs was 21.30 per 100 patient-years, the most frequent types (≥ 1.0 per 100 patient-years) being nasopharyngitis, pneumonia, influenza, and infection. Meningococcal infections were reported in four patients (0.10 per 100 patient-years). Two patients died from meningococcal sepsis, with a mortality rate of 0.05 per 100 patient-years. This is the largest safety dataset on eculizumab in Japan derived from more than 10 years of clinical experience. No new safety signals were observed and the safety profile of eculizumab was consistent with that in previous clinical trials and international real-world safety analyses.

Peripheral immune landscape for hypercytokinemia in myasthenic crisis utilizing single-cell transcriptomics

BACKGROUND

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is the most prevalent autoimmune disorder affecting the neuromuscular junction. A rapid deterioration in respiratory muscle can lead to a myasthenic crisis (MC), which represents a life-threatening condition with high mortality in MG. Multiple CD4+ T subsets and hypercytokinemia have been identified in the peripheral pro-inflammatory milieu during the crisis. However, the pathogenesis is complicated due to the many types of cells involved, leaving the underlying mechanism largely unexplored.

METHODS

We conducted single-cell transcriptomic and immune repertoire sequencing on 33,577 peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from two acetylcholine receptor antibody-positive (AChR +) MG patients during MC and again three months post-MC. We followed the Scanpy workflow for quality control, dimension reduction, and clustering of the single-cell data. Subsequently, we annotated high-resolution cell types utilizing transfer-learning models derived from publicly available single-cell immune datasets. RNA velocity calculations from unspliced and spliced mRNAs were applied to infer cellular state progression. We analyzed cell communication and MG-relevant cytokines and chemokines to identify potential inflammation initiators.

RESULTS

We identified a unique subset of monocytes, termed monocytes 3 (FCGR3B+ monocytes), which exhibited significant differential expression of pro-inflammatory signaling pathways during and after the crisis. In line with the activated innate immune state indicated by MC, a high neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) was confirmed in an additional 22 AChR + MC patients in subsequent hemogram analysis and was associated with MG-relevant clinical scores. Furthermore, oligoclonal expansions were identified in age-associated B cells exhibiting high autoimmune activity, and in CD4+ and CD8+ T cells demonstrating persistent T exhaustion.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, our integrated analysis of single-cell transcriptomics and TCR/BCR sequencing has underscored the role of innate immune activation which is associated with hypercytokinemia in MC. The identification of a specific monocyte cluster that dominates the peripheral immune profile may provide some hints into the etiology and pathology of MC. However, future functional studies are required to explore causality.

Complement in the Brain: Contributions to Neuroprotection, Neuronal Plasticity, and Neuroinflammation

The complement system is an ancient collection of proteolytic cascades with well-described roles in regulation of innate and adaptive immunity. With the convergence of a revolution in complement-directed clinical therapeutics, the discovery of specific complement-associated targetable pathways in the central nervous system, and the development of integrated multi-omic technologies that have all emerged over the last 15 years, precision therapeutic targeting in Alzheimer disease and other neurodegenerative diseases and processes appears to be within reach. As a sensor of tissue distress, the complement system protects the brain from microbial challenge as well as the accumulation of dead and/or damaged molecules and cells. Additional more recently discovered diverse functions of complement make it of paramount importance to design complement-directed neurotherapeutics such that the beneficial roles in neurodevelopment, adult neural plasticity, and neuroprotective functions of the complement system are retained.

Exploring Pro-Inflammatory Immunological Mediators: Unraveling the Mechanisms of Neuroinflammation in Lysosomal Storage Diseases

Lysosomal storage diseases are a group of rare and ultra-rare genetic disorders caused by defects in specific genes that result in the accumulation of toxic substances in the lysosome. This excess accumulation of such cellular materials stimulates the activation of immune and neurological cells, leading to neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Examples of lysosomal storage diseases include Gaucher, Fabry, Tay–Sachs, Sandhoff, and Wolman diseases. These diseases are characterized by the accumulation of various substrates, such as glucosylceramide, globotriaosylceramide, ganglioside GM2, sphingomyelin, ceramide, and triglycerides, in the affected cells. The resulting pro-inflammatory environment leads to the generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and several components of complement cascades, which contribute to the progressive neurodegeneration seen in these diseases. In this study, we provide an overview of the genetic defects associated with lysosomal storage diseases and their impact on the induction of neuro-immune inflammation. By understanding the underlying mechanisms behind these diseases, we aim to provide new insights into potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for monitoring and managing the severity of these diseases. In conclusion, lysosomal storage diseases present a complex challenge for patients and clinicians, but this study offers a comprehensive overview of the impact of these diseases on the central and peripheral nervous systems and provides a foundation for further research into potential treatments.

The treatment of atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome with eculizumab in pediatric patients: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

The atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome (aHUS) is a rare form of thrombotic microangiopathy associated with high morbidity and high mortality. Eculizumab, a humanized anti-C5 monoclonal antibody, was the first medication approved for treating aHUS in 2011.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study is to evaluate the efficacy and safety of eculizumab treatment in pediatric patients with aHUS.

DATA SOURCES

We consulted PubMed, Scopus, SciELO, and Cochrane Library databases in July 2021. The descriptors were as follows: "Atypical Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome," "aHUS," "eculizumab," "Pediatrics," "Pediatric," "Child," "Children," "Adolescent."

STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

The study eligibility criteria are as follows: clinical trials and observational studies that included pediatric patients with aHUS diagnosis and who were treated with eculizumab.

PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTIONS

The participants are pediatric patients, up to 18 years old, with aHUS. The intervention was eculizumab treatment.

STUDY APPRAISAL

For quality assessment, we used the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) quality assessment tool for case series studies, and the Risk of Bias In Non-Randomized Studies of Interventions (ROBINS-I) tool.

RESULTS

The initial search retrieved 433 studies, from which 15 were selected after complete assessment: 9 cohorts, 4 case series, and 1 clinical trial. The publication date ranged from 2015 to 2021. In total, 940 pediatric patients were included, and 682 received eculizumab. All studies reported improvements in renal and hematological parameters in most of the patients treated with eculizumab. The mortality rate was 1.6% for all patients treated with eculizumab.

LIMITATIONS

The number of studies is limited, and the included studies were methodologically heterogeneous. The studies were mostly observational and many had small sample sizes.

CONCLUSIONS

Eculizumab appears to be safe and effective for the treatment of aHUS in pediatric patients. More research is necessary to establish long-term efficacy, safety, and time of discontinuation.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42021266255.

With complements: C3 inhibition in the clinic

C3 is a key complement protein, located at the nexus of all complement activation pathways. Extracellular, tissue, cell-derived, and intracellular C3 plays critical roles in the immune response that is dysregulated in many diseases, making it an attractive therapeutic target. However, challenges such as very high concentration in blood, increased acute expression, and the elevated risk of infections have historically posed significant challenges in the development of C3-targeted therapeutics. This is further complicated because C3 activation fragments and their receptors trigger a complex network of downstream effects; therefore, a clear understanding of these is needed to provide context for a better understanding of the mechanism of action (MoA) of C3 inhibitors, such as pegcetacoplan. Because of C3's differential upstream position to C5 in the complement cascade, there are mechanistic differences between pegcetacoplan and eculizumab that determine their efficacy in patients with paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria. In this review, we compare the MoA of pegcetacoplan and eculizumab in paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria and discuss the complement-mediated disease that might be amenable to C3 inhibition. We further discuss the current state and outlook for C3-targeted therapeutics and provide our perspective on which diseases might be the next success stories in the C3 therapeutics journey.

Practical Management for Use of Eculizumab in the Treatment of Severe, Refractory, Non-Thymomatous, AChR + Generalized Myasthenia Gravis: A Systematic Review

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a rare autoimmune disorder caused by specific autoantibodies at the neuromuscular junction. MG is classified by the antigen specificity of these antibodies. Acetylcholine receptor (AChR) antibodies are the most common type (74–88%), followed by anti-muscle specific kinase (MuSK) and other antibodies. While all these antibodies lead to neuromuscular transmission failure, the immuno-pathogenic mechanisms are distinct. Complement activation is a primary driver of AChR antibody-positive MG (AChR+ MG) pathogenesis. This leads to the formation of the membrane attack complex and destruction of AChR receptors and the postsynaptic membrane resulting in impaired neurotransmission and muscle weakness characteristic of MG. Broad-based immune-suppressants like corticosteroids are effective in controlling MG; however, their long-term use can be associated with significant adverse effects. Advances in translational research have led to the development of more directed therapeutic agents that are likely to alter the future of MG treatment. Eculizumab is a humanized monoclonal antibody that inhibits the cleavage of complement protein C5 and is approved for use in generalized MG. In this review, we discuss the pathophysiology of MG; the therapeutic efficacy and tolerability of eculizumab, as well as the practical guidelines for its use in MG; future studies exploring the role of eculizumab in different stages and subtypes of MG subtypes; the optimal duration of therapy and its discontinuation; the characterization of non-responder patients; and the use of biomarkers for monitoring therapy are highlighted. Based on the pathophysiologic mechanisms, emerging therapies and new therapeutic targets are also reviewed.

Generalized myasthenia gravis patients infected with COVID-19 should continue eculizumab

Eculizumab, a humanized monoclonal antibody, is a complement inhibitor indicated for refractory generalized myasthenia gravis (MG). However, there are limited data on the safety of eculizumab for MG during coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection. We report a case in which eculizumab was continued for MG after contracting COVID-19, followed by a favorable outcome.

Pharmacotherapy of Generalized Myasthenia Gravis with Special Emphasis on Newer Biologicals

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a chronic, fluctuating, antibody-mediated autoimmune disorder directed against the post-synaptic neuromuscular junctions of skeletal muscles, resulting in a wide spectrum of manifestations ranging from mild to potentially fatal. Given its unique natural course, designing an ideal trial design for MG has been wrought with difficulties and evidence in favour of several of the conventional agents is weak as per current standards. Despite this, acetylcholinesterases and corticosteroids have remained the cornerstones of treatment for several decades with intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) and therapeutic plasma exchange (PLEX) offering rapid treatment response, especially in crises. However, the treatment of MG entails long-term immunosuppression and conventional agents are viable options but take longer to act and have a number of class-specific adverse effects. Advances in immunology, translational medicine and drug development have seen the emergence of several newer biological agents which offer selective, target-specific immunotherapy with fewer side effects and rapid onset of action. Eculizumab is one of the newer agents that belong to the class of complement inhibitors and has been approved for the treatment of refractory general MG. Zilucoplan and ravulizumab are other agents in this group in clinical trials. Neisseria meningitis is a concern with all complement inhibitors, mandating vaccination. Neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) inhibitors prevent immunoglobulin recycling and cause rapid reduction in antibody levels. Efgartigimod is an FcRn inhibitor recently approved for MG treatment, and rozanolixizumab, nipocalimab and batoclimab are other agents in clinical trial development. Although lacking high quality evidence from randomized clinical trials, clinical experience with the use of anti-CD20 rituximab has led to its use in refractory MG. Among novel targets, interleukin 6 (IL6) inhibitors such as satralizumab are promising and currently undergoing evaluation. Cutting-edge therapies include genetically modifying T cells to recognise chimeric antigen receptors (CAR) and chimeric autoantibody receptors (CAAR). These may offer sustained and long-term remissions, but are still in very early stages of evaluation. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) allows immune resetting and offers sustained remission, but the induction regimens often involve serious systemic toxicity. While MG treatment is moving beyond conventional agents towards target-specific biologicals, lack of knowledge as to the initiation, maintenance, switching, tapering and long-term safety profile necessitates further research. These concerns and the high financial burden of novel agents may hamper widespread clinical use in the near future.

Eculizumab versus rituximab in generalised myasthenia gravis

OBJECTIVE

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is the most common autoimmune disorder affecting the neuromuscular junction. However, evidence shaping treatment decisions, particularly for treatment-refractory cases, is sparse. Both rituximab and eculizumab may be considered as therapeutic options for refractory MG after insufficient symptom control by standard immunosuppressive therapies.

METHODS

In this retrospective observational study, we included 57 rituximab-treated and 20 eculizumab-treated patients with MG to compare the efficacy of treatment agents in generalised, therapy-refractory anti-acetylcholine receptor antibody (anti-AChR-ab)-mediated MG with an observation period of 24 months. Change in the quantitative myasthenia gravis (QMG) score was defined as the primary outcome parameter. Differences between groups were determined in an optimal full propensity score matching model.

RESULTS

Both groups were comparable in terms of clinical and demographic characteristics. Eculizumab was associated with a better outcome compared with rituximab, as measured by the change of the QMG score at 12 and 24 months of treatment. Minimal manifestation of disease was more frequently achieved in eculizumab-treated patients than rituximab-treated patients at 12 and 24 months after baseline. However, the risk of myasthenic crisis (MC) was not ameliorated in either group.

INTERPRETATION

This retrospective, observational study provides the first real-world evidence supporting the use of eculizumab for the treatment of refractory, anti-AChR-ab positive MG. Nonetheless, the risk of MC remained high and prompts the need for intensified monitoring and further research effort aimed at this vulnerable patient cohort.

AAV Vector-Mediated Antibody Delivery (A-MAD) in the Central Nervous System

In the last four decades, monoclonal antibodies and their derivatives have emerged as a powerful class of therapeutics, largely due to their exquisite targeting specificity. Several clinical areas, most notably oncology and autoimmune disorders, have seen the successful introduction of monoclonal-based therapeutics. However, their adoption for treatment of Central Nervous System diseases has been comparatively slow, largely due to issues of efficient delivery resulting from limited permeability of the Blood Brain Barrier. Nevertheless, CNS diseases are becoming increasingly prevalent as societies age, accounting for ~6.5 million fatalities worldwide per year. Therefore, harnessing the full therapeutic potential of monoclonal antibodies (and their derivatives) in this clinical area has become a priority. Adeno-associated virus-based vectors (AAVs) are a potential solution to this problem. Preclinical studies have shown that AAV vector-mediated antibody delivery provides protection against a broad range of peripheral diseases, such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), influenza and malaria. The parallel identification and optimization of AAV vector platforms which cross the Blood Brain Barrier with high efficiency, widely transducing the Central Nervous System and allowing high levels of local transgene production, has now opened a number of interesting scenarios for the development of AAV vector-mediated antibody delivery strategies to target Central Nervous System proteinopathies.

Delayed cerebral thrombosis complicating bacterial meningitis

BACKGROUND

Delayed cerebral thrombosis has been described as a potential cause of cerebrovascular complications in patients with bacterial meningitis. We report a case of delayed cerebral thrombosis in a 63-year-old woman admitted for pneumococcal meningitis. Initially, there was a good clinical evolution under treatment with steroids and antibiotics. On day 8 after admission, she was found with a decreased level of consciousness. Her neurological condition gradually worsened. Repeated brain imaging showed extensive ischemic lesions. Despite treatment with high-dose corticosteroids, the patient died.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted. Data on patient characteristics, diagnosis, treatment and outcome were collected.

RESULTS

To date, 28 cases with delayed cerebral thrombosis following bacterial meningitis have been reported. Streptococcus pneumoniae was the pathogen in 89% of cases. Clinical deterioration occurred in all patients, with a duration varying from 5 to 40 days between admission and deterioration. Most common symptom was altered consciousness (83%), followed by hemiparesis (52%). Brain imaging typically shows new infarctions (96%). Fifty-six percent of patients were treated with corticosteroids after deterioration. Outcome was poor with mortality rate of 46%.

CONCLUSION

Delayed cerebral thrombosis presents as a clinical deterioration, typically a sudden decline in consciousness, more than 5 days after meningitis onset. Brain imaging shows new widespread ischemic lesions. Diagnosis should be made carefully, based on clinical findings and brain imaging, after excluding endocarditis. The underlying etiology remains unknown. When delayed cerebral thrombosis is suspected, high-dose corticosteroids should be started empirically. The prognosis remains poor with high mortality rates.

TREATMENT OF MYASTHENIA GRAVIS PATIENTS WITH COVID-19: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the late 2019 outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), causes a respiratory disease which could put myasthenia gravis (MG) patients at a greater risk of developing severe disease course, since infections and some drugs are a well-recognized trigger of symptom exacerbation in MG patients. Out of ten most commonly used past and present drugs used in COVID-19 treatment, two (quinolone derivatives and azithromycin) are known to worsen MG symptoms, whereas another two (tocilizumab and eculizumab) might have positive effect on MG symptoms. Colchicine, remdesivir, lopinavir, ritonavir and favipiravir seem to be safe to use, while data are insufficient for bamlanivimab, although it is also probably safe to use. Considering MG treatment options in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2, acetylcholine esterase inhibitors are generally safe to use with some preliminary studies even demonstrating therapeutic properties in regard to COVID-19. Corticosteroids are in general safe to use, even recommended in specific circumstances, whereas other immunosuppressive medications (mycophenolate mofetil, azathioprine, cyclosporine, methotrexate) are probably safe to use. The only exception is rituximab since the resulting B cell depletion can lead to more severe COVID-19 disease. Concerning plasmapheresis and intravenous immunoglobulins, both can be used in COVID-19 while taking into consideration thromboembolic properties of the former and hemodynamic disturbances of the latter. As current data suggest, all known COVID-19 vaccines are safe to use in MG patients.

Different Monoclonal Antibodies in Myasthenia Gravis: A Bayesian Network Meta-Analysis

Background: Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a common autoimmune disease with acquired neuromuscular transmission disorders. Recently, monoclonal antibodies have been shown to successfully treat a variety of diseases.

Methods: In this meta-analysis, an appropriate search strategy was used to search eligible randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on different monoclonal antibodies to treat patients with MG published up to September 2021 from the embase, PubMed, and Cochrane Library. We assessed the average difference or odds ratio between each drug and placebo and summarized them as the average and 95% confidence interval (CI), respectively.

Results: In indicators of efficacy, patients receiving eculizumab (MD, −1.9; 95% CI, −3.2–0.76) had decreases in MG-ADL scores compared to placebo. In addition, only eculizumab (MD, −3.1; 95% CI, −4.7–1.5) and efgartigimod (MD, −1.4; 95% CI, −2.1–0.68) showed a significant difference from placebo in the amount of reduction in QMG scores, while neither of the other two monoclonal antibodies was statistically significant. With regard to the safety of monoclonal antibody therapy, there was no significant difference in the probability of AE in subjects treated with any of the four monoclonal antibodies compared to placebo.

Conclusions: eculizumab was effective in reducing MG-ADL scores and QMG scores in myasthenia gravis. Meanwhile, eculizumab also caused fewer AE. As an emerging therapy, monoclonal antibodies are prospective in the treatment of MG. However, more researches are required to be invested in the future as the results obtained from small sample sizes are not reliable enough.

Eculizumab treatment for myasthenia gravis subgroups: 2021 update

Eculizumab is a recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody that targets the complement protein C5, inhibiting its cleavage into C5a and C5b and ultimately preventing the formation of C5b-9 membrane attack complex (MACs), thereby protecting the neuromuscular junction from the damage of complement activation. In 2017, eculizumab became the second FDA-approved medication for AchR-positive generalized myasthenia gravis (gMG) patients based on the successful results of a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, phase 2, phase 3 study (the REGAIN trial) and its open-label extension study. Despite the efficacy of eculizumab in treating AchR antibody-positive refractory gMG was demonstrated in the REGAIN study, there is few information on its efficacy in other subgroup of MG patients including seronegative MG, thymoma-associated MG and MG crisis. This narrative review summarizes current clinical studies of eculizumab in these refractory gMG patients, with a focus on the therapeutic efficacy and tolerability in different subgroup of MG.

Potential therapeutic strategies in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy

Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (CIDP) is an autoimmune neuropathy involving peripheral nerve and nerve roots. The pathological hallmark of CIDP is macrophage-induced demyelination. Antibodies against nerve fibers, complement decomposition, abnormalities in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid cytokine profile, and changes of peripheral blood cell proportion were also reported in CIDP patients. These findings in immunopathology provide support for the introduction of potential therapeutic options for the treatment of CIDP. In this review, we systematically listed the potential therapeutic strategies targeting different components of the immune system by comparing the treatment of other autoimmune inflammatory diseases of the nervous system. Several ongoing clinical trials will assess the efficacy and safety of potential CIDP treatments.

Complement ratios C3bc/C3 and sC5b-9/C5 do not increase the sensitivity of detecting acute complement activation systemically

BACKGROUND

Complement activation plays an important pathogenic role in numerous diseases. The ratio between an activation product and its parent protein is suggested to be more sensitive to detect complement activation than the activation product itself. In the present study we explored whether the ratio between the activation product and the parent protein for C3 (C3bc/C3) and for C5 (sC5b-9/C5) increased the sensitivity to detect complement activation in acute clinical settings compared to the activation product alone.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Samples from patients with acute heart failure following ST-elevated myocardial infarction (STEMI) and from patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) were used. C3, C3bc and C5, sC5b-9 were analysed in 629 and 672 patient samples, respectively. Healthy controls (n = 20) served to determine reference cut-off values for activation products and ratios, defined as two SD above the mean.

RESULTS

Increased C3bc/C3- and sC5b-9/C5 ratios were vastly dependent on C3bc and sC5b-9. Thus, 99.5 % and 98.1 % of the increased C3bc/C3- and sC5b-9/C5 ratios were solely dependent on increased C3bc and sC5b-9, respectively. Significantly decreased C3 and C5 caused increased ratios in only 3/600 (0.5 %) and 4/319 (1.3 %) samples, respectively. Strong correlations between C3bc and C3bc/C3-ratio and between sC5b-9 and sC5b-9/C5-ratio were found in the STEMI- (r = 0.926 and r = 0.786, respectively) and the OHCA-population (r = 0.908 and r = 0.843, respectively; p < 0.0001 for all). Importantly, sC5b-9 identified worse outcome groups better than sC5b-9/C5-ratio.

CONCLUSION

C3bc and sC5b-9 were sensitive markers of complement activation. The ratios of C3bc/C3 and sC5b-9/C5 did not improve detection of complement activation systemically.

Quantitative evaluation of drug efficacy in the treatment of myasthenia gravis

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to quantitatively evaluate placebo effect and drug efficacy characteristics and identify associated factors that affect quantitative myasthenia gravis (MG) score (QMGs) and MG activities of daily living score (MG-ADLs) in patients with MG.

METHODS

Randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials were comprehensively searched in public databases (PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library databases).A model-based meta-analysis was developed to describe time-course about drug efficacy and placebo effect.

RESULTS

Twelve articles including 13 trials (673 participants) that were eligible for this study evaluated four immunosuppressants (tacrolimus, cyclosporine, prednisone, and mycophenolate mofetil) and five targeted therapy drugs (eculizumab, belimumab, zilucoplan, efgartigimod, and iscalimab). The pharmacodynamic model showed that eculizumab had the highest efficacy in reducing QMGs scores (3.66 points), and efgartigimod had the highest efficacy in reducing MG-ADLs scores (1.97 points). The placebo effect of QMGs and MG-ADLs increased apparently with time and reached 52% and 90% of their maximum effect in 12 weeks, respectively. In addition, this study found that the activities of daily living ability increased with the increase of the proportion of patients undergoing thymectomy.

CONCLUSION

This study analyzed the efficacy characteristics of nine drugs. The present findings provide necessary quantitative information for drug development of MG.

Current and Upcoming Treatment Modalities in Myasthenia Gravis

ABSTRACT

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is one of the extensively studied autoimmune disorder. There has been a dramatic increase in research to further understand molecular pathogenesis of MG and clinical trials for new drugs in MG treatment in the past decade. This review article is to consolidate the available information in simple terms with students, residents, and fellows as target audience for easy learning and help application of this knowledge to clinical practice.

Eculizumab Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in Patients With Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder

Objective: To investigate the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the approved 900/1,200 mg dosing regimen for the terminal complement component 5 (C5) inhibitor eculizumab in patients with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD). Methods: Data were analyzed from 95 patients with aquaporin-4-IgG-positive NMOSD who received eculizumab during the PREVENT study (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01892345). Relationships were explored between eculizumab exposure and free complement C5 concentrations, terminal complement activity, and clinical outcomes. Results: Pharmacokinetic data were well-described by a two-compartment model with first-order elimination, and time-variant body-weight and plasmapheresis/plasma exchange effects. Steady-state serum eculizumab concentrations were achieved by Week 4 and were sustained, with serum trough eculizumab concentrations maintained above the 116 μg/ml threshold for complete complement inhibition throughout 168 weeks of treatment in all post-baseline samples from 89% of patients. Complete inhibition of terminal complement was achieved at Day 1 peak and pre-dosing trough eculizumab concentration in nearly all post-baseline samples assessed (free C5 <0.5 μg/ml in all post-baseline samples from 96% of patients; in vitro hemolysis <20% in all post-baseline samples from 93% of patients). Kaplan-Meier survival analysis of time to first relapse showed separation of eculizumab-treated patients from those receiving placebo, but no separation based on eculizumab exposure quartile, indicating an optimized dose regimen with maximized efficacy. Conclusions: The approved eculizumab dosing regimen (900/1,200 mg) for adults with aquaporin-4-IgG-positive NMOSD is confirmed by rigorous quantitative model-based analysis of exposure-response. The data demonstrate that eculizumab's mechanism of action translates into clinical effect by achieving rapid, complete, and sustained terminal complement inhibition.

Eculizumab Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in Patients With Generalized Myasthenia Gravis

Objective: To investigate the pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and exposure-response of the approved 900/1,200 mg dosing regimen for the terminal complement component 5 (C5) inhibitor eculizumab in patients with generalized myasthenia gravis (gMG). Methods: The analysis used data from 62 patients aged ≥ 18 years with anti-acetylcholine receptor (AChR) antibody-positive refractory gMG who received eculizumab during the REGAIN study (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01997229). One- and two-compartment population-pharmacokinetic models were evaluated, and the impact of covariates on pharmacokinetic parameters was assessed. Relationships between eculizumab exposure and free C5 concentration, in vitro hemolytic activity, clinical response, and tolerability were characterized. Results: Steady-state serum eculizumab concentrations were achieved by Week 4 and were sustained throughout the 26-week treatment period. The eculizumab pharmacokinetic data were well-described by a two-compartment model with first-order elimination, including effects of body weight on pharmacokinetic parameters and plasma-exchange events on clearance. Complete inhibition of terminal complement was achieved in nearly all patients at the time of trough and peak eculizumab concentrations at all post-dose timepoints assessed (free C5 < 0.5 μg/ml in 92% of patients; in vitro hemolysis < 20% in 87% of patients). Serum eculizumab concentrations of ≥116 μg/ml achieved free C5 concentrations of < 0.5 μg/ml. Clinical efficacy and tolerability were consistent across the eculizumab exposure range. Conclusions: Rigorous, quantitative, model-based exposure-response analysis of serum eculizumab concentration and response data demonstrated that the approved eculizumab dosing (900/1,200 mg) for adults with anti-AChR antibody-positive refractory gMG rapidly achieved complete inhibition of terminal complement activation and provided sustained clinical efficacy across the eculizumab exposure range.

Adverse Side Effects Associated with Corticosteroid Therapy: A Study in 39 Patients with Generalized Myasthenia Gravis

Background

The tolerability of high-dose oral corticosteroids in patients with generalized myasthenia gravis (gMG) has not been systematically assessed. We evaluated adverse side effects (ASEs) of corticosteroid treatment in patients with gMG.

Material/Methods

Retrospective analysis was conducted of ASEs reported as being related to corticosteroid treatment in 39 patients with gMG who were treated with oral corticosteroids for ≥1 year.

Results

Median (interquartile range [IQR]) age was 60 (21) years, 53.8% of patients were women, and 66.7% were aged ≤65 years. Median (IQR) prednisone treatment duration was 14 (2) months; median (IQR) daily dose was 40 (15) mg. The median number of ASEs reported as corticosteroid-related was 2/patient (IQR, 1). Pre-diabetes and weight gain were most common (each 43.6% of patients). Bruising, insomnia, and osteoporosis were more prevalent in patients aged >65 years, while irritability, osteopenia, and pre-diabetes were more common in patients aged ≤65 years, although differences were not statistically significant. Irritability and weight gain were more prevalent in women (P=0.010 for irritability); osteoporosis and pre-diabetes more common in men (P=0.015 for osteoporosis). ASEs were generally more common in the high-dose prednisone group (>30 mg/day), but were only statistically significant for irritability (P=0.001).

Conclusions

Corticosteroid-related ASEs were common in patients with gMG. Some of these ASEs can have serious medical consequences, and certain ASEs appeared to be associated with specific patient characteristics. Demographics and comorbidities of patients with gMG must be carefully considered before corticosteroid initiation. Potential ASEs, such as unanticipated osteoporosis in men, require extra vigilance.

The emerging role of complement in neuromuscular disorders

The complement cascade is a key arm of the immune system that protects the host from exogenous and endogenous toxic stimuli through its ability to potently regulate inflammation, phagocytosis, and cell lysis. Due to recent clinical trial successes and drug approvals for complement inhibitors, there is a resurgence in targeting complement as a therapeutic approach to prevent ongoing tissue destruction in several diseases. In particular, neuromuscular diseases are undergoing a recent focus, with demonstrated links between complement activation and disease pathology. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of complement activation and its role during the initiation and progression of neuromuscular disorders including myasthenia gravis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. We will review the preclinical and clinical evidence for complement in these diseases, with an emphasis on the complement-targeting drugs in clinical trials for these indications.

Inpatient Diagnosis and Management of Neuromuscular Disorders

Although many neuromuscular conditions are evaluated on an outpatient basis owing to their chronic or progressive nature, more urgent evaluation and management is often required for the inpatient presenting with acute to subacute focal or generalized numbness or weakness. This review focuses on clinical pattern recognition and basic anatomic localization principles to aid in the identification of common, as well as some less frequently encountered, neuromuscular disorders in hospitalized patients. The characteristic clinical and diagnostic features, associated complications, and recommended treatments of key neuromuscular conditions with acute and subacute manifestations are discussed. These conditions can be life-threatening in some cases, such as in Guillain-Barré syndrome, owing to associated oropharyngeal weakness, respiratory failure, or marked dysautonomia. Prompt recognition of the clinical and pathologic features is therefore necessary to reduce associated morbidity and mortality.

Complement Factor D as a Strategic Target for Regulating the Alternative Complement Pathway

The complement system is central to first-line defense against invading pathogens. However, excessive complement activation and/or the loss of complement regulation contributes to the development of autoimmune diseases, systemic inflammation, and thrombosis. One of the three pathways of the complement system, the alternative complement pathway, plays a vital role in amplifying complement activation and pathway signaling. Complement factor D, a serine protease of this pathway that is required for the formation of C3 convertase, is the rate-limiting enzyme. In this review, we discuss the function of factor D within the alternative pathway and its implication in both healthy physiology and disease. Because the alternative pathway has a role in many diseases that are characterized by excessive or poorly mediated complement activation, this pathway is an enticing target for effective therapeutic intervention. Nonetheless, although the underlying disease mechanisms of many of these complement-driven diseases are quite well understood, some of the diseases have limited treatment options or no approved treatments at all. Therefore, in this review we explore factor D as a strategic target for advancing therapeutic control of pathological complement activation.

Pan-Cancer Analysis of Immune Complement Signature C3/C5/C3AR1/C5AR1 in Association with Tumor Immune Evasion and Therapy Resistance

Despite the advances in our understanding of the genetic and immunological basis of cancer, cancer remains a major public health burden with an ever-increasing incidence rate globally. Nevertheless, increasing evidence suggests that the components of the complement system could regulate the tumor microenvironment (TME) to promote cancer progression, recurrence, and metastasis. In the present study, we used an integrative multi-omics analysis of clinical data to explore the relationships between the expression levels of and genetic and epigenetic alterations in C3, C5, C3AR1, and C5AR1 and tumor immune evasion, therapy response, and patient prognosis in various cancer types. We found that the complements C3, C5, C3AR1, and C5AR1 have deregulated expression in human malignancies and are associated with activation of immune-related oncogenic processes and poor prognosis of cancer patients. Furthermore, we found that the increased expression levels of C3, C5, C3AR1, and C5AR1 were primarily predicted by copy number variation and gene methylation and were associated with dysfunctional T-cell phenotypes. Single nucleotide variation in the gene signature co-occurred with multiple oncogenic mutations and is associated with the progression of onco-immune-related diseases. Further correlation analysis revealed that C3, C5, C3AR1, and C5AR1 were associated with tumor immune evasion via dysfunctional T-cell phenotypes with a lesser contribution of T-cell exclusion. Lastly, we also demonstrated that the expression levels of C3, C5, C3AR1, and C5AR1 were associated with context-dependent chemotherapy, lymphocyte-mediated tumor killing, and immunotherapy outcomes in different cancer types. In conclusion, the complement components C3, C5, C3AR1, and C5AR1 serve as attractive targets for strategizing cancer immunotherapy and response follow-up.

Emerging Role of C5 Complement Pathway in Peripheral Neuropathies: Current Treatments and Future Perspectives

The complement system is a key component of innate immunity since it plays a critical role in inflammation and defense against common pathogens. However, an inappropriate activation of the complement system is involved in numerous disorders, including peripheral neuropathies. Current strategies for neuropathy-related pain fail to achieve adequate pain relief, and although several therapies are used to alleviate symptoms, approved disease-modifying treatments are unavailable. This urgent medical need is driving the development of therapeutic agents for this condition, and special emphasis is given to complement-targeting approaches. Recent evidence has underscored the importance of complement component C5a and its receptor C5aR1 in inflammatory and neuropathic pain, indicating that C5a/C5aR1 axis activation triggers a cascade of events involved in pathophysiology of peripheral neuropathy and painful neuro-inflammatory states. However, the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms of this signaling in peripheral neuropathy are not fully known. Here, we provide an overview of complement pathways and major components associated with dysregulated complement activation in peripheral neuropathy, and of drugs under development targeting the C5 system. C5/C5aR1 axis modulators could represent a new strategy to treat complement-related peripheral neuropathies. Specifically, we describe novel C5aR allosteric modulators, which may potentially become new tools in the therapeutic armory against neuropathic pain.

Therapeutic Targeting of the Complement System: From Rare Diseases to Pandemics

The complement system was discovered at the end of the 19th century as a heat-labile plasma component that "complemented" the antibodies in killing microbes, hence the name "complement." Complement is also part of the innate immune system, protecting the host by recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns. However, complement is multifunctional far beyond infectious defense. It contributes to organ development, such as sculpting neuron synapses, promoting tissue regeneration and repair, and rapidly engaging and synergizing with a number of processes, including hemostasis leading to thromboinflammation. Complement is a double-edged sword. Although it usually protects the host, it may cause tissue damage when dysregulated or overactivated, such as in the systemic inflammatory reaction seen in trauma and sepsis and severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Damage-associated molecular patterns generated during ischemia-reperfusion injuries (myocardial infarction, stroke, and transplant dysfunction) and in chronic neurologic and rheumatic disease activate complement, thereby increasing damaging inflammation. Despite the long list of diseases with potential for ameliorating complement modulation, only a few rare diseases are approved for clinical treatment targeting complement. Those currently being efficiently treated include paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria, atypical hemolytic-uremic syndrome, myasthenia gravis, and neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. Rare diseases, unfortunately, preclude robust clinical trials. The increasing evidence for complement as a pathogenetic driver in many more common diseases suggests an opportunity for future complement therapy, which, however, requires robust clinical trials; one ongoing example is COVID-19 disease. The current review aims to discuss complement in disease pathogenesis and discuss future pharmacological strategies to treat these diseases with complement-targeted therapies. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The complement system is the host's defense friend by protecting it from invading pathogens, promoting tissue repair, and maintaining homeostasis. Complement is a double-edged sword, since when dysregulated or overactivated it becomes the host's enemy, leading to tissue damage, organ failure, and, in worst case, death. A number of acute and chronic diseases are candidates for pharmacological treatment to avoid complement-dependent damage, ranging from the well established treatment for rare diseases to possible future treatment of large patient groups like the pandemic coronavirus disease 2019.

Zilucoplan: An Investigational Complement C5 Inhibitor for the Treatment of Acetylcholine Receptor Autoantibody-Positive Generalized Myasthenia Gravis

INTRODUCTION

Generalized myasthenia gravis (gMG) is an autoimmune disorder in which pathogenic autoantibodies damage the neuromuscular junction, causing disabling or life-threatening muscle weakness. Most treatments nonspecifically inhibit aspects of the immune system, do not directly address the causal mechanisms of tissue damage, and often have side-effect profiles that negatively impact patients. Understanding of the central pathogenic role of the complement cascade in gMG is advancing, and a new complement-targeting treatment is under investigation.

AREAS COVERED

We provide an overview of gMG etiology, the complement cascade, current treatments, and the investigational gMG therapy zilucoplan. Zilucoplan is a small, subcutaneously administered, macrocyclic peptide that inhibits cleavage of complement component C5 and the subsequent formation of the membrane attack complex.

EXPERT OPINION

In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 clinical trial, zilucoplan demonstrated clinically meaningful complement inhibition in patients with acetylcholine receptor-positive gMG. Zilucoplan, a first-of-its-kind cyclic peptide targeting C5, appears to be a therapeutic option for the treatment of gMG based on available pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic data and phase 1 and 2 efficacy, safety, and tolerability data with limited long-term follow-up. Zilucoplan use earlier in the treatment paradigm would be suitable in this population should phase 3 efficacy and safety data be equally favorable.

Infectious Risks Associated with Biologics Targeting Janus Kinase-Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription Signaling and Complement Pathway for Inflammatory Diseases

The recognition of the role of complement and Janus kinase (JAK)-dependent cytokines in the pathogenesis of inflammatory and immune-mediated disorders has revolutionized the treatment of a myriad of rheumatological and inflammatory diseases. C5 inhibitors and Janus kinase inhibitors have emerged as attractive therapeutic options. Because of the blockage of immune pathways, these targeted therapies carry an increased risk of infection. This article reviews the mechanism of action and the approved and off-label indications of the agents with most clinical experience within this drug classes. It discusses the associated risks of infection, proposing screening, prevention, and risk mitigation strategies.

Eculizumab during Pregnancy in a Patient with Treatment-Refractory Myasthenia Gravis: A Case Report

The recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody eculizumab has been shown to be effective and well tolerated in patients with anti-acetylcholine receptor antibody-positive, treatment-refractory generalized myasthenia gravis (gMG). Myasthenia gravis (MG) often affects women of child-bearing potential. However, management can be challenging during pregnancy, and current treatment options are limited due to potential teratogenicity. Data are currently lacking on the use of eculizumab in pregnant women with gMG. This case report describes a successful pregnancy in a young woman with treatment-refractory gMG treated with eculizumab before, during, and after pregnancy. Eculizumab appeared to have a favorable benefit-risk profile in this setting, with no treatment-related adverse effects noted in either the patient or the neonate. The patient remains neurologically stable on eculizumab, which she has now been receiving for 5 years. This first report of the use of eculizumab during pregnancy in a patient with treatment-refractory gMG suggests a potential role for eculizumab in this setting, although further clinical experience is necessary to support its use during pregnancy in women with MG.

Clinical Experience with Eculizumab in Treatment-Refractory Acetylcholine Receptor Antibody-Positive Generalized Myasthenia Gravis

Background:

Although established therapies are effective in most patients with generalized myasthenia gravis (gMG), some patients do not respond or they experience intolerable adverse events, highlighting the need for better tolerated, targeted therapies for treatment-refractory gMG.

Objective:

To describe real-world experience with eculizumab in patients with treatment-refractory acetylcholine receptor antibody-positive (AChR+) gMG.

Methods:

Retrospective chart review of 15 patients with treatment-refractory AChR+ gMG treated for 12 months with eculizumab (900 mg/week for 4 weeks then 1200 mg every 2 weeks). Outcome measures were Myasthenia Gravis–Activities of Daily Living (MG-ADL) scores, number of exacerbations, single-breath count test (SBCT) score, medication changes, selected Quantitative Myasthenia Gravis (QMG) evaluations, and adverse events. Data collected at 3-monthly intervals for 12 months before and after eculizumab initiation were analyzed.

Results:

Clinically meaningful reductions in total MG-ADL scores were observed at 3 months following eculizumab initiation and maintained up to 12 months in all patients. After 12 months’ eculizumab treatment, there was a significant reduction in the number of acute exacerbations; mean (SD) SBCT score improved from 28.13 (0.33) to 50.26 (2.86); all patients achieved a ‘none’ or ‘mild’ rating for QMG evaluations; all patients reduced their daily prednisone dose; and nine patients had discontinued pyridostigmine. At the end of treatment, intravenous immunoglobulin was discontinued in all six patients receiving this therapy at eculizumab initiation. Eculizumab was well tolerated.

Conclusions:

This real-world study demonstrated improvement in outcome measures and decreased concomitant drug requirement within 12 months of eculizumab initiation in patients with treatment-refractory AChR+ gMG.