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Martínez-Hernando MP, Bolonio D, Ortega MF, Llamas JF, García-Martínez MJ. Material flow analysis and regional greenhouse gas emissions associated to permanent magnets and batteries used in electric vehicles. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 904:166368. [PMID: 37619721 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Clean technologies are rapidly increasing in the last decade. In the transport sector, market share of global electric car sales has changed from 0.0 % in 2010 to 3.2 % (2.1million) in 2020, and predictions show that sales could reach near 30 % in 2030. This drastic change is mainly encouraged by environmental goals set to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) expressed in CO2-eq, not emitted by electric vehicles (EVs) during the use phase. However, clean technologies might cause other impacts during manufacture and, while clearly reduce the dependency on oil, can increase the dependency on other materials. In this context, the objectives of our work are quantifying the critical raw materials needed by permanents magnets and batteries of EVs (neodymium, lithium, and cobalt); their supply risk, performing a material flow analysis; and studying their environmental impacts using the methodology "Environmentally-Extended Multi-Regional Input-Output Analysis". This methodology is used to quantify the produced impacts and the country where the impacts are being produced, in contrast to conventional methodologies that only calculate global impacts. Therefore, environmental impacts are estimated considering different scenarios, based on environmental objectives of the European Union and China. In most scenarios China shows a key role in mining and processing of metals, being the country where major impacts are produced. Obtained results are useful to assess which environmental proposals are more effective to reduce the environmental impact of EVs and set the ground to understand the geostrategic importance of key metals used for EVs manufacture.
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Affiliation(s)
- María-Pilar Martínez-Hernando
- Department of Energy and Fuels - Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Minas y Energía, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Calle Ríos Rosas 21, 28003 Madrid, Spain
| | - David Bolonio
- Department of Energy and Fuels - Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Minas y Energía, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Calle Ríos Rosas 21, 28003 Madrid, Spain
| | - Marcelo F Ortega
- Department of Energy and Fuels - Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Minas y Energía, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Calle Ríos Rosas 21, 28003 Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan F Llamas
- Department of Energy and Fuels - Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Minas y Energía, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Calle Ríos Rosas 21, 28003 Madrid, Spain
| | - María-Jesús García-Martínez
- Department of Energy and Fuels - Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Minas y Energía, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Calle Ríos Rosas 21, 28003 Madrid, Spain.
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Zhou Y, Wei X, Huang L, Wang H. Worldwide research on extraction and recovery of cobalt through bibliometric analysis: a review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:16930-16946. [PMID: 36607578 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-24727-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Cobalt is a strategic and critical mineral whose demand is expected to grow rapidly. This study aims to provide a comprehensive summary of cobalt extraction and recovery research from 2012 to 2021 in the form of bibliometric analysis. The work was based on the Science Citation Index Expanded (Web of Science) and carried out using the InCites of Clarivate for bibliometric data analysis and the software VOSviewer for science mapping. By analyzing a dataset of 4967 publications, the most influential journals, countries, authors, institutions, and publications were identified, and the keyword co-occurrence networks were mapped. The China mainland produced the most publications, while the USA had the highest average number of citations per publication and the UK was the most collaborative with other countries. The keyword analysis shows that the research hotspots gradually shifted over time from early means and methods for determination of cobalt in solution to recovery of cobalt from spent lithium batteries, smelting slag, copper-cobalt ore, etc. The research will be focused on further improvement and optimization of the separation, extraction, and recovery processes of cobalt from spent batteries in recent and future years, and three approaches were promoted to facilitate economization and industrialization of the processes in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youlian Zhou
- Geology Institute of China Chemical Geology and Mine Bureau, Beijing, 100101, China.
| | - Xiangsong Wei
- Geology Institute of China Chemical Geology and Mine Bureau, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Leiming Huang
- Geology Institute of China Chemical Geology and Mine Bureau, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Hong Wang
- Wuhan Blue Fox Digital Intelligence Technology Co. LTD, Wuhan, 430074, Hubei, China
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Kasikov AG. Advances in Kola Cobalt Production Technology: An 80-Year Journey. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 2021. [DOI: 10.1134/s0040579521050079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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A novel method for the separation of zinc and cobalt from hazardous zinc–cobalt slag via an alkaline glycine solution. Sep Purif Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2021.119009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Fu X, Beatty DN, Gaustad GG, Ceder G, Roth R, Kirchain RE, Bustamante M, Babbitt C, Olivetti EA. Perspectives on Cobalt Supply through 2030 in the Face of Changing Demand. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:2985-2993. [PMID: 32072813 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b04975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Lithium-ion battery demand, particularly for electric vehicles, is projected to increase by over 300% throughout the next decade. With these expected increases in demand, cobalt (Co)-dependent technologies face the risk of significant impact from supply concentration and mining limitations in the short term. Increased extraction and secondary recovery form the basis of modeling scenarios that examine implications on Co supply to 2030. Demand for Co is estimated to range from 235 to 430 ktonnes in 2030. This upper bound on Co demand in 2030 corresponds to 280% of world refinery capacity in 2016. Supply from scheduled and unscheduled production as well as secondary production is estimated to range from 320 to 460 ktonnes. Our analysis suggests the following: (1) Co price will remain relatively stable in the short term, given that this range suggests even a supply surplus, (2) future Co supply will become more diversified geographically and mined more as a byproduct of nickel (Ni) over this period, and (3) for this demand to be met, attention should be paid to sustained investments in refined supply of Co and secondary recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinkai Fu
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Danielle N Beatty
- Materials Research Laboratory, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | | | - Gerbrand Ceder
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Richard Roth
- Materials Research Laboratory, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Randolph E Kirchain
- Materials Research Laboratory, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Michele Bustamante
- Materials Research Laboratory, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Callie Babbitt
- Golisano Institute for Sustainability, RIT, Rochester, New York 14623, United States
| | - Elsa A Olivetti
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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Sun J, Zhao J, Huang Z, Yan K, Shen X, Xing J, Gao Y, Jian Y, Yang H, Li B. A Review on Binderless Tungsten Carbide: Development and Application. NANO-MICRO LETTERS 2019; 12:13. [PMID: 34138087 PMCID: PMC7770855 DOI: 10.1007/s40820-019-0346-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
WC-Co alloys have enjoyed great practical significance owing to their excellent properties during the past decades. Despite the advantages, however, recently there have been concerns about the challenges associated with the use of Co, i.e. price instability, toxicity and properties degeneration, which necessitates the fabrication of binderless tungsten carbide (BTC). On the other hand, BTC or BTC composites, none of them, to date has been commercialized and produced on an industrial scale, but only used to a limited extent for specialized applications, such as mechanical seals undergoing high burthen as well as high temperature electrical contacts. There are two challenges in developing BTC: fully densifying the sintered body together with achieving a high toughness. Thus, this review applies towards comprehensively summarize the current knowledge of sintering behavior, microstructure, and mechanical properties of BTC, highlighting the densification improving strategies as well as toughening methods, so as to provide reference for those who would like to enhance the performance of BTC with better reliability advancing them to further wide applications and prepare the material in a way that is environment friendly, harmless to human health and low in production cost. This paper shows that the fabrication of highly dense and high-performance BTC is economically and technically feasible. The properties of BTC can be tailored by judiciously selecting the chemical composition coupled with taking into careful account the effects of processing techniques and parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jialin Sun
- State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jun Zhao
- Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture of MOE, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, 250061, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhifu Huang
- State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China.
| | - Ke Yan
- Key Laboratory of Education Ministry for Modern Design and Rotor-Bearing System, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xuehui Shen
- School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, Qilu University of Technology, Jinan, 250353, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiandong Xing
- State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China
| | - Yimin Gao
- State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China
| | - Yongxin Jian
- State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China
| | - Hejie Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Li
- State Key Laboratory for Mechanical Behavior of Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China
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Chen Z, Zhang L, Xu Z. Tracking and quantifying the cobalt flows in mainland China during 1994-2016: Insights into use, trade and prospective demand. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 672:752-762. [PMID: 30974365 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the demand for cobalt is increasing dramatically because of its critical role in clean energy technologies globally. China has been a leading consumer and refiner of cobalt, and meanwhile is a scarce country of cobalt resources. Its growing domestic demand may impose significant pressure on sustainable development of cobalt resources and make it potentially vulnerable to supply shortages. Aiming at identifying the potential opportunities for improving cobalt resource efficiency and supply security, dynamic stocks and flows analysis was applied to track and quantify the anthropogenic cobalt cycles in mainland China such as its production, use, and trade over the years 1994-2016. The analysis results showed that the production, trade and consumption of cobalt resources in mainland China grew significantly in the past two decades. China has been a net importer of cobalt raw materials but a net exporter of cobalt chemicals and final cobalt-containing products, indicating that China is bearing increasing environmental burden of processing cobalt product for other economies. The in-use stock of cobalt has reached over 140,000 t by 2016, of which the cobalt contained in in-use batteries accounted for approximately 77%. The recycling rate of end-of-life (Eol) products kept at a very low level, less than 20% in the past decades. The cumulative domestic demand of cobalt is projected to exceed China's reserve base by around 2022 based on scenario analysis. Furthermore, some recommendations were proposed for the sustainable development of China's cobalt resource, including the improvement of national cobalt reserve system, development of diversified resource supply channel and the establishment of a recycling system and associated regulations for cobalt-containing obsolete products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenyang Chen
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Lingen Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenming Xu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai 200240, People's Republic of China.
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Assessing the Long-Term Global Sustainability of the Production and Supply for Stainless Steel. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s41247-019-0056-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Sverdrup HU, Olafsdottir AH. Conceptualization and parameterization of the market price mechanism in the WORLD6 model for metals, materials, and fossil fuels. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s13563-019-00182-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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10
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Modelling Global Wolfram Mining, Secondary Extraction, Supply, Stocks-in-Society, Recycling, Market Price and Resources, Using the WORLD6 System Dynamics Model. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s41247-017-0028-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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