Risk analysis of operative intervention for failed coronary angioplasty

Trends in Emergency Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting After Percutaneous Coronary Intervention, 1994–2003

BACKGROUND

In the last decade, percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) has undergone profound changes in techniques used to achieve revascularization and in patient selection. We examine trends in emergency surgical revascularization after PCI.

METHODS

Using The Society of Thoracic Surgeons National Cardiac Surgery Database, we examined patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting within 6 hours of PCI from 1994 to 2003. Stratifying into groups of patients who had and had not suffered myocardial infarction within 24 hours of PCI followed by coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), we tracked trends in characteristics, predicted risk, and clinical outcomes.

RESULTS

The proportion of isolated CABG procedures done emergently after PCI decreased over 1994 to 1999 from 3,357 of 115,679 (2.9%) to 1,227 of 155,831 (0.8%), remaining stable through 2003. Those suffering myocardial infarction within 24 hours made up a constant proportion of isolated CABG as emergency after PCI (3,352 of 1,042,864; 0.3%) since 1997. Over the decade, the preoperative risk profile worsened, including more elderly patients and more with cerebrovascular disease and congestive heart failure. Operative mortality among these patients has risen with time (from 8.0% to 9.3%; p < 0.0001 for trend), particularly in the setting of acute myocardial infarction (from 14.1% to 16.6%; p < 0.0001 for trend). Similarly, postoperative complications have increased over time, most notably seen in the need for reoperation (10.62% to 24.56%), prolonged postoperative ventilation (25.65% to 54.58%), and renal failure (10.22% to 18.55%).

CONCLUSIONS

In 2005, there remains a low but real need for emergent CABG after PCI, in which operative outcomes are less than ideal, especially in the postinfarction patient, representing an area for cross-specialty collaboration.

Emergency Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery for Percutaneous Coronary Interventions

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the changes in incidence, clinical characteristics, and indications for emergency coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) from 1979 to 2003.

BACKGROUND

Emergency CABG after PCI is associated with significant morbidity and mortality.

METHODS

Data from 23,087 patients who underwent PCI at Mayo Clinic from 1979 to 2003 were analyzed. Patients were divided into three groups: the "pre-stent" era, 1979 to 1994 (n = 8,905); the "initial stent era," 1995 to 1999 (n = 7,605); and the "current stent era," 2000 to 2003 (n = 6,577).

RESULTS

Although patients undergoing PCI in the recent time periods had more high-risk features, there was a significant decrease in the incidence of emergency CABG from 2.9% to 0.7% to 0.3% across the groups (p < 0.001). Patients requiring emergency surgery in the recent time periods had a higher prevalence of hypertension, prior revascularization, and left ventricular dysfunction (ejection fraction <40%), as well as more complex coronary lesions. Fewer patients in the current stent era had coronary artery dissections and abrupt vessel closure requiring emergency CABG. The in-hospital mortality rate for emergency CABG patients remains unchanged and ranges from 10% to 14%.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study demonstrates that despite the increase in high-risk patients undergoing PCI, there has been a marked decrease in the incidence of patients requiring emergency CABG. However, the in-hospital mortality rate for those requiring emergency CABG remains high and unchanged.

Emergency surgery after unsuccessful coronary angioplasty: a review of 15 years' experience

BACKGROUND

Emergency coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is occasionally necessary for failed percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA). The aim of this study was to assess the outcome of patients receiving emergency CABG after unsuccessful PTCA over a 15-year study period.

METHODS

From January 1982 through December 1996, 74 patients underwent emergency CABG after unsuccessful PTCA (crash group). This group was compared with a matched group of 74 patients having primary elective CABG (control group).

RESULTS

All 74 crash group patients were to have PTCA of one coronary system. After PTCA failure, 58 patients (78.3%) developed electrocardiographic changes of evolving acute myocardial infarction (AMI). The overall rate of AMI was 8.1% for the crash group and 2.7% for the control group. Two patients in the crash group died, with no deaths in the control group. There was no significant difference between mean in-hospital length of stay.

CONCLUSIONS

With prompt, aggressive, and complete myocardial revascularization, patients who required emergency CABG after PTCA failure had an outcome not significantly different from that of patients having elective CABG.

Emergency coronary artery bypass grafting after failed coronary angioplasty: what has changed in a decade?

BACKGROUND

We assessed the impact of patient and procedural characteristics on the outcome after emergency coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) for failed percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) and temporal changes in these factors.

METHODS

Patients who underwent PTCA and subsequent emergency CABG were identified from the databases of the Departments of Cardiology and Cardiothoracic Surgery.

RESULTS

Two periods of clinical practice were compared. In 1989 to 1993, 2,880 PTCAs were performed, 64 patients underwent emergency CABG (2.3%), and 7 patients died (10.9%). During 1994 to 1998, 46 patients of 3,801 PTCAs underwent emergency CABG (1.2%, p < 0.01), and 7 patients died (15.2%, NS). The average rate of stenting increased from 0.8% to 24% in 1994 to 1998 as well as the frequency of arterial bypass grafts (0% vs 39%). In the latter period, patients were older, were more often females, had more cardiovascular risk factors, a higher Cleveland score (each p < 0.05), and suffered more often from periprocedural myocardial infarctions (p < 0.001) and nonfatal periprocedural complications (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Although the frequency of emergency CABG after failed PTCA declined, perioperative mortality tended to increase according to an unfavorable shift in patient risk factors and morbidity.

Surgical treatment of interventional coronary angiographic accidents

Newer methodologies have increased the incidence of coronary interventions. At the authors' institution, 5,614 coronary interventional procedures (28% of all catheterizations) were performed over a 3-year period, from 1995 to 1997. Eighty-one patients (1.4%) suffered angiographic accidents, including coronary artery dissection, free rupture, tamponade, foreign body embolism, and wire entrapment, and were retrospectively reviewed. All patients were taken for emergency surgery in less than 4 hours. The mean age was 61.2 years, 44 (54%) were men, and 37 (46%) were in cardiogenic shock at the time of surgery. Fifty-seven patients (70%) had intraaortic balloon counterpulsation. The number of previous cardiac interventions ranged from one to four with a mean of 1.9. One to five bypass grafts (mean, 2.2) were performed, and three patients required temporary ventricular assist devices. There were six deaths for a 30-day mortality rate of 7.4%. Thirty-two patients (39.5%) suffered significant morbidity, including cerebrovascular accidents, and renal and respiratory failure. Perioperative myocardial infarctions were diagnosed in 39 (48%) patients. Average length of stay was 12.1 days. One-year survival was satisfactory at 90% (73/81), with 56 survivors (77%) regaining normal everyday activity. Early surgical intervention, rapid revascularization, and temporary mechanical support are keys to low mortality in this high-risk group. Identification of high-risk interventions and significant comorbid conditions, with concomitant surgical consultation, need to be pursued to reduce the high morbidity rate.

Factors influencing mortality after emergency coronary artery bypass grafting for failed percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty

BACKGROUND

Emergency coronary artery bypass grafting after failed percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty is associated with increased mortality.

METHODS

From 1981 through 1995, 117 patients at our institution underwent emergency coronary artery bypass grafting after failed percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty, with an in-hospital mortality rate of 13.6%. Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to identify the factors that influenced the risk of death.

RESULTS

Univariate analysis revealed that patients who died more often were women and had chronic renal failure, lower ejection fractions, and more diffuse coronary artery disease; less often received an internal mammary artery graft or an antegrade perfusion catheter; required inotropic support in the cardiac catheterization laboratory; and experienced myocardial infarction. Multivariate analysis demonstrated that the need for inotropic support in the cardiac catheterization laboratory was the best predictor of perioperative death.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with a reduced ejection fraction in whom percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty fails, antegrade perfusion does not produce a response, and myocardial infarction occurs are more likely to die after coronary artery bypass grafting. The risk appears to be highest for patients who require inotropic support in the cardiac catheterization laboratory.

Heparin-bonded circuits improve clinical outcomes in emergency coronary artery bypass grafting

Compared to patients undergoing elective or urgent coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), those undergoing emergency CABG (EM-CABG) have a higher morbidity and mortality. The use of heparin-bonded circuits (HBC) has been shown to improve clinical outcomes in nonemergent CABG patients. It is not known, however, whether the improved hemostasis and attenuation of the inflammatory response to cardiopulmonary bypass, conferred by HBC, can overcome the high incidence of comorbid risk factors in (EM-CABG) patients and improve their outcomes. A retrospective analysis of 206 consecutive patients undergoing EM-CABG over 4 years (1993-1997) at one institution was performed. Eighty-one patients were treated with conventional non-heparin-bonded circuits (NHBC) with full anticoagulation protocol (FAP, activated clotting time [ACT] > 480 sec); 125 patients were treated with HBC and a lower anticoagulation protocol (LAP, ACT > 280 seconds). Outcomes and results were collected prospectively and are presented as mean +/- SD. Preoperative risk profiles were similar in both treatment groups. Postoperatively, compared with the NHBC group, patients treated with HBC/LAP required fewer homologous donor units (4.1 +/- 10.7 vs 8.2 +/- 13.6 units, p = 0.005), were less likely to require inotropic support (18.6% vs 38.3%, p = 0.005), and had a lower incidence of perioperative myocardial infarction (MI, 3.2% vs 12.3%, p = 0.04) and pulmonary complications (4.0% vs 12.3%, p = 0.04). The use of HBC/LAP resulted in a decreased incidence of postoperative complications (12.8% vs 28.4%, p = 0.01, odds ratio 0.37 with 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.18-0.76). This resulted in a shorter duration of ventilatory support (30.5 +/- 54.0 vs 72.8 +/- 16.7 hours, p = 0.009), ICU stay (38.2 +/- 36.5 vs 91.5 +/- 68.7 hours, p = 0.009), hospital stay (8.0 +/- 7.1 vs 11.0 +/- 8.9 days, p = 0.008), and therefore cost. In conclusion, the use of HBC/LAP in EM-CABG resulted in a reduction of homologous transfusion and postoperative complications associated with decreased hospital stays and cost.

Abrupt vessel closure: changing importance, management, and consequences

Percutaneous coronary interventions have been performed for 20 years. Despite the success and progress of these interventions, abrupt vessel closure has been a dramatic adverse event of coronary interventions. Closure has frequently led to the major complications of death, myocardial infarction, and emergency coronary artery bypass. Because of the fear of this adverse event and its subsequent complications, the applicability of coronary interventions is sometimes limited. The pathologic characteristics of abrupt vessel closure have been recognized as predominantly caused by dissection, with vessel recoil and thrombus formation playing important secondary roles. The recognition of the lesions at risk for abrupt vessel closure has led to a strategy of lesion-specific device therapy to reduce complications. Similarly the role of antiplatelet and antithrombotic therapies have reduced complications. The earliest methods of dealing with abrupt closure was emergency coronary artery bypass surgery with significant rates of morbidity and mortality. With the advent of second-generation devices and techniques, particularly stents, the management of abrupt vessel closure has been simplified and alternatives to emergency coronary bypass are more available. This article will review the history and current status of the prevention and management of abrupt vessel closure and demonstrate that anticipation and management of this complication have been facilitated with reduction of subsequent complications and increased applicability of coronary interventions.

PTCA with the use of cardiac assist devices: risk stratification, short- and long-term results

Percutaneous cardiopulmonary assist devices (PCPS) have become available in interventional cardiology within recent years. These tools offer the opportunity of performing percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) in high-risk patients characterized by significant stenoses of several coronary arteries and a poor left ventricular function. It is unclear for which patients PCPS are necessary and which patients will profit by PTCA as compared to coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). Therefore, the anticipated risk of CABG and of PTCA without assist devices was calculated according to risk scores and compared with our results of assisted PTCA. In addition the long-term survival rate was investigated. In 35 patients (mean 65.5 years of age, 12 females, 23 males), we performed PTCA concomitant with the use of cardiac assist devices. The indications for the use of a cardiac assist device were severely impaired LV function (EF 30% +/- 8.9%) in combination with significant coronary artery disease (2.7 +/- 0.3 vessels) and a significant supply area of the vessel to be dilated. In 6 patients, PCPS was started before coronary angioplasty because of hemodynamic instability. In 21 cases, PCPS was on a standby basis without being connected to the patient's circulation. In 8 patients, a left heart assist device, the 14F-Hemopump, was inserted percutaneously. The patients were analyzed using risk scores of angioplasty and of coronary bypass graft surgery. The calculated risk of hemodynamic compromise during PTCA according to the risk scores was more than 50%. The anticipated risk of a fatal outcome following CABG would have been 19.8%. PTCA was performed on an average of 2.0 coronary arteries per patient and was successful in 85%. We observed a decline in angina pectoris classification (CCS) from 3.5 to 1.6. An average reduction of 1.1 NYHA class was achieved. The in-hospital mortality was 8.6% (3 patients: 1 x sepsis, 1 x early reocclusion, 1 x cerebral embolism). At 24 months follow-up, a re-PTCA was necessary in four cases because of restenosis. In the remainder, NYHA and CCS class were stable during the follow-up period. An additional five patients died during the first year and two patients in the second year. We conclude that PTCA with the use of a cardiac assist device shows favorable short-term results in a subset of patients with extended coronary artery disease and severely impaired LV function who are not suitable for nonsupported PTCA or CABG due to their risk profile. However, the long term results are not satisfying and stress the need for complete revascularisation with CABG once the patient's condition is stabilized by means of supported PTCA.

Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty failures in patients with multivessel disease. Is there an increased risk?

In recent years, there has been a nationwide trend toward performing percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty in patients with multivessel coronary artery disease. The clinical course of 57 consecutive patients who required emergency first-time coronary artery bypass grafting operations were reviewed to assess for difference in outcome between the 28 patients (49%) with single-vessel disease and the 29 patients (51%) with multivessel disease. The two groups were similar in preoperative characteristics except for a higher proportion of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the patients with multivessel disease (p = 0.03). Twice as many patients with multivessel disease were in shock (single-vessel disease = 4 [14%], multivessel disease = 8 [28%], p = not significant) en route to the operating room and significantly more patients with multivessel disease required on-going cardiopulmonary resuscitation (single-vessel disease = 0 [0%], multivessel disease = 5 [17%], p = 0.03). Significantly more coronary artery bypass grafts were placed in the patients with multivessel disease (single-vessel disease = 1.5 +/- 0.6, multivessel disease = 2.9 +/- 0.7, p < 0.01), which required longer aortic clamping time (p = 0.02) and cardiopulmonary bypass time (p < 0.01). There were seven postoperative deaths; all but one occurred in patients with multivessel disease (single-vessel disease = 1 [4%], multivessel disease = 6 [21%], p = 0.05). According to multivariate analysis, incremental risk factors of mortality were preoperative shock (p < 0.01), urgent or emergency percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (p = 0.06), and multivessel disease (p = 0.12). Despite a similar incidence of myocardial infarction (single-vessel disease = 8 [29%], multivessel disease = 12 [41%], p = not significant), patients with multivessel disease had a higher incidence of cardiac morbidity (single-vessel disease = 4 [14%], multivessel disease = 11 [38%], p = 0.04) and noncardiac morbidity (single-vessel disease = 4 [14%], multivessel disease = 12 [41%], p = 0.02). By multivariate analysis, incremental risk factors of morbidity were preoperative shock (p < 0.01), multivessel disease (p = 0.02), and ejection fraction < 50% (p = 0.07). In the subset of patients with multivessel disease, preoperative shock, ejection fraction < 50, and an age of 60 years or greater were associated with higher morbidity and mortality. In conclusion, the risk of percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty failure is considerably higher in patients with multivessel disease. In certain subsets of patients with multivessel disease, coronary artery bypass grafting would be a safer procedure when compared with percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty for initial myocardial revascularization.

Perfusion therapy to reduce myocardial ischemia en route to emergency coronary artery bypass grafting for failed percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty

Despite improvements in operator technique, catheter technology, and the development of new devices, emergency coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is still required in 1%-4% of attempted catheter based revascularization procedures. Patients who require such emergency CABG after failed percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) have worse acute outcomes than those undergoing elective CABG, with a higher incidence of Q wave myocardial infarction (MI) and a higher operative mortality. In patients with otherwise refractory abrupt closure, maintenance of antegrade coronary blood flow using perfusion catheters lessens the incidence of Q wave MI and lowers peak creatinine phosphokinase. Direct maintenance of coronary flow thus appears to provide more definitive control of myocardial ischemia than purely adjunctive measures, such as intra-aortic balloon pumping, cardiopulmonary support, or coronary sinus retroperfusion. Although the recent introduction of coronary stents holds great promise for definitive percutaneous reversal of abrupt closure and a dramatic decrease in the incidence of emergency CABG for failed PTCA, maintenance of antegrade flow via perfusion technology remains the cornerstone of management in reducing the perioperative mortality and morbidity of patients who still require emergency bypass surgery after failed PTCA.

Emergency surgical revascularisation for coronary angioplasty complications

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate trends in referrals for emergency operations after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) complications; to analyse morbidity and mortality and assess the influence of PTCA backup on elective surgery.

DESIGN

A retrospective analysis of patients requiring emergency surgical revascularisation within 24 hours of percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty.

PATIENTS

Between January 1980 and December 1990, 75 patients requiring emergency surgery within 24 hours of percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty.

SETTING

A tertiary referral centre and postgraduate teaching hospital.

RESULTS

57 patients (76%) were men, the mean age was 55 (range 29-73) years, and 30 (40%) had had a previous myocardial infarction. Before PTCA, 68 (91%) had severe angina, 59 (79%) had multivessel disease, and six (8%) had a left ventricular ejection fraction of less than 40%. A mean of 2.1 grafts (range one to five) were performed; the internal mammary artery was used in only one patient. The operative mortality was 9% and inhospital mortality was 17%. There was a need for cardiac massage until bypass was established in 19 patients (25%): this was the most important outcome determinant (P = 0.0051) and was more common in those patients with multivessel disease (P = 0.0449) and in women (P = 0.0388). In 10 of the 19 cases a vacant operating theatre was unavailable, the operation being performed in the catheter laboratory or anaesthetic room. These 19 patients had an operative mortality of 32% and inhospital mortality of 47%, compared with 2% and 7% respectively for the 56 patients who awaited the next available operating theatre. Complications included myocardial infarction, 19 patients (25%); arrhythmias, 10 patients (3%); and gross neurological event, two patients (3%). The mean intensive care unit stay was 2.6 days (range 1 to 33 days) and the mean duration of hospital admission was 13 days (range 5-40 days).

CONCLUSIONS

Patients undergoing emergency surgery after PTCA complications have a substantially increased inhospital mortality and morbidity. PTCA in this unit continues to require surgical cover. Delays in operating on stable patients in centres which operate a "next available theatre" backup policy may not differ from some units performing PTCA with offsite cover for PTCA complications. Particularly in the presence of multivessel disease, however, PTCA complications may be associated with the need for "crash" bypass and such patients are unlikely to survive hospital transfer. The proportion of patients requiring "crash" bypass has increased during the period reviewed because of the extent of disease in the emergency surgical group increased. These results indicate that surgery should not be denied to these patients.

Use of internal mammary artery for emergency grafting after failed coronary angioplasty

Of 929 consecutive patients who underwent percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty over a 36-month period, 32 (3.4%) had emergency coronary artery bypass grafting for angioplasty failure. Twenty-two patients (69%) were hemodynamically stable (stable group), and 10 (31%) were unstable (unstable group) before emergency bypass. In the unstable group, the interval between failed angioplasty and opening of the grafts or end of extracorporeal circulation was significantly shorter (p < 0.001 and p < 0.002, respectively) and significantly more grafts per patient were performed (p < 0.05) than in the stable group. Twenty-seven patients (84%) received at least one internal mammary artery graft, independent of their hemodynamic condition. In 11 culprit left anterior descending arteries, the internal mammary artery graft was supplemented by a saphenous vein graft to the same territory, especially in the unstable group. There were no hospital deaths. Postoperatively, the incidence of myocardial infarction (p < 0.005) and the use of antiarrhythmics (p < 0.0001) were increased and length of stay tended to be longer in the unstable compared with the stable group. The use of a reperfusion catheter had no influence on clinical outcome, except for a significantly reduced postoperative use of antiarrhythmics (p < 0.05). The internal mammary artery can be used in emergency coronary artery bypass grafting after failed percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty, without hospital mortality and with acceptable morbidity, especially in hemodynamically stable patients.

Left ventricular assist without thoracotomy: clinical experience with the Dennis method

A method to provide left ventricular circulatory assistance without thoracotomy was developed and implemented in 2 patients. The left atrium is cannulated from the neck by passing a catheter across the interatrial septum (Dennis technique) using fluoroscopic and echocardiographic imaging. To facilitate ambulation, the arterial catheter is connected to the right axillary artery. Left atrial to axillary arterial flow is produced by a centrifugal pump. Two patients were perfused at 2.7 to 3.5 L/min for 5 and 6.5 days. One patient had successful coronary angioplasty during perfusion and remains alive 1 year later. The other patient died of sepsis and anuria that preceded implementation of circulatory assistance. The Dennis method of continuous left ventricular circulatory assistance avoids thoracotomy, requires a minimal operation, is portable and inexpensive, uses widely available equipment, and is particularly suitable for patients in cardiogenic shock after acute myocardial infarction. The method is safe and cost-effective, and merits wider application in selected patients.