Alteration of rat liver proteoglycans during regeneration

Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Simple Summary

Proteoglycans affect multiple molecular and cellular processes during the progression of solid tumors with a highly desmoplastic stroma, such as HCC. Due to their role in enhancing or limiting the traits of cancer cells underlying their aggressiveness, such as proliferation, angiogenesis, epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), and stemness, these macromolecules could be exploited as molecular targets or therapeutic agents. Proteoglycans, such as biglycan, versican, syndecan-1, glypican-3, and agrin, promote HCC cell proliferation, EMT, and angiogenesis, while endostatin and proteoglycan 4 were shown to impair cancer neovascularization or to enhance the sensitivity of HCC cells to drugs, such as sorafenib and regorafenib. Based on this evidence, interventional strategies involving the use of humanized monoclonal antibodies, T cells engineered with chimeric antigen receptors, or recombinant proteins mimicking potentially curative proteoglycans, are being employed or may be adopted in the near future for the treatment of HCC.

Abstract

Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer. In general, proteoglycans can perform signaling activities and influence a range of physical, chemical, and biological tissue properties, including the diffusivity of small electrolytes and nutrients and the bioavailability of growth factors. While the dysregulated expression of some proteoglycans is observed in many cancers, whether they act as supporters or limiters of neoplastic progression is still a matter of controversy, as the tumor promoting or suppressive function of some proteoglycans is context dependent. The participation of multiple proteoglycans in organ regeneration (as demonstrated for the liver in hepatectomy mouse models) and in cancer suggests that these molecules actively influence cell growth and motility, thus contributing to key events that characterize neoplastic progression. In this review, we outline the main roles of proteoglycans in the physiology and pathology of cancers, with a special mention to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), highlighting the translational potential of proteoglycans as targets or therapeutic agents for the treatment of this disease.

TREM-2 defends the liver against hepatocellular carcinoma through multifactorial protective mechanisms

OBJECTIVE

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a prevalent and aggressive cancer usually arising on a background of chronic liver injury involving inflammatory and hepatic regenerative processes. The triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM-2) is predominantly expressed in hepatic non-parenchymal cells and inhibits Toll-like receptor signalling, protecting the liver from various hepatotoxic injuries, yet its role in liver cancer is poorly defined. Here, we investigated the impact of TREM-2 on liver regeneration and hepatocarcinogenesis.

DESIGN

TREM-2 expression was analysed in liver tissues of two independent cohorts of patients with HCC and compared with control liver samples. Experimental HCC and liver regeneration models in wild type and Trem-2-/- mice, and in vitro studies with hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and HCC spheroids were conducted.

RESULTS

TREM-2 expression was upregulated in human HCC tissue, in mouse models of liver regeneration and HCC. Trem-2-/- mice developed more liver tumours irrespective of size after diethylnitrosamine (DEN) administration, displayed exacerbated liver damage, inflammation, oxidative stress and hepatocyte proliferation. Administering an antioxidant diet blocked DEN-induced hepatocarcinogenesis in both genotypes. Similarly, Trem-2-/- animals developed more and larger tumours in fibrosis-associated HCC models. Trem-2-/- livers showed increased hepatocyte proliferation and inflammation after partial hepatectomy. Conditioned media from human HSCs overexpressing TREM-2 inhibited human HCC spheroid growth in vitro through attenuated Wnt ligand secretion.

CONCLUSION

TREM-2 plays a protective role in hepatocarcinogenesis via different pleiotropic effects, suggesting that TREM-2 agonism should be investigated as it might beneficially impact HCC pathogenesis in a multifactorial manner.

Increase of glycosaminoglycans and metalloproteinases 2 and 9 in liver extracellular matrix on early stages of extrahepatic cholestasis

CONTEXT

Cholestasis produces hepatocellular injury, leukocyte infiltration, ductular cells proliferation and fibrosis of liver parenchyma by extracellular matrix replacement.

OBJECTIVE

Analyze bile duct ligation effect upon glycosaminoglycans content and matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs) activities.

METHODS

Animals (6-8 weeks; n = 40) were euthanized 2, 7 or 14 days after bile duct ligation or Sham-surgery. Disease evolution was analyzed by body and liver weight, seric direct bilirubin, globulins, gamma glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), alkaline phosphatase (Alk-P), alanine and aspartate aminotransferases (ALT and AST), tissue myeloperoxidase and MMP-9, pro MMP-2 and MMP-2 activities, histopathology and glycosaminoglycans content.

RESULTS

Cholestasis caused cellular damage with elevation of globulins, GGT, Alk-P, ALT, AST. There was neutrophil infiltration observed by the increasing of myeloperoxidase activity on 7 (P = 0.0064) and 14 (P = 0.0002) groups which leads to the magnification of tissue injuries. Bile duct ligation increased pro-MMP-2 (P = 0.0667), MMP-2 (P = 0.0003) and MMP-9 (P<0.0001) activities on 14 days indicating matrix remodeling and establishment of inflammatory process. Bile duct ligation animals showed an increasing on dermatan sulfate and/or heparan sulfate content reflecting extracellular matrix production and growing mitosis due to parenchyma depletion.

CONCLUSIONS

Cholestasis led to many changes on rats' liver parenchyma, as so as on its extracellular matrix, with major alterations on MMPs activities and glycosaminoglycans content.

Adenovirus-mediated hepatic syndecan-1 overexpression induces hepatocyte proliferation and hyperlipidaemia in mice

BACKGROUND

Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) have been involved in the regulation of cell growth, apoptosis and lipid metabolism in vitro; however, their functional role in vivo remains unknown.

AIM

Here, we describe hepatic tissue and lipid metabolism changes after liver overexpression of syndecan-1 (SDC-1), the main hepatic HSPG, in mice induced by adenoviral gene transfer.

RESULTS

SDC-1 overexpression was associated with marked hepatocyte proliferation, cell-isolated apoptosis and increased plasma alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels. Additionally, SDC-1 liver overexpression significantly raised plasma cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations due to an increase in all lipoprotein particles, including the appearance of large and apolipoprotein (apo) E-enriched high-density lipoprotein (HDL) particles. Hepatic very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) production was not affected by SDC-1 overexpression, suggesting a delayed plasma clearance of apo B lipoproteins as the underlying hyperlipidaemic mechanism. These pleotropic effects were qualitatively equivalent, even though less intense, in mice overexpressing a cytoplasmic C-terminal domain-deleted SDC-1.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first report in vivo of the biological effects induced by a specific HSPG in the liver, with potential implications in both regenerative biology and molecular lipidology.

Changes in glycosaminoglycan, galactosyltransferase-I, and sialyltransferase during rat liver regeneration

After partial hepatectomy, the liver is capable of complete restoration to its normal size. The extracellular matrix, which surrounds the cells, plays important roles in this regeneration. Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), which are components of the extracellular matrix, interact with several other matrix components and growth factors, and are involved in hepatocyte growth. In this study, the content of heparan sulfate, a major GAG in rat liver, reached a minimum at 12 hours after partial hepatectomy. Galactosyltransferase-I activity, related to the synthesis of GAGs, and sialyltransferase activity, related to the synthesis of glycoconjugates, reached a minimum at 6 hours. The serum and liver contents of hyaluronic acid reached a maximum at 1 day and returned gradually to their preoperative levels. These results suggest that polysaccharide synthesis was decreased in the Golgi apparatus of hepatocytes at the beginning of regeneration, and that hyaluronic acid degradation decreased in the lysosomes of hepatocytes. The ability to synthesize polysaccharides recovered ahead of the ability to degrade hyaluronic acid. The changes in these GAGs with time in the early regeneration period might play an important role in organ regeneration.

Characterization of glycosaminoglycans in regenerating canine liver

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy is accompanied by hepatocyte proliferation and alteration of the extracellular matrix. Glycosaminoglycans, which are components of the extracellular matrix, interact with other matrix components, and are related to hepatocyte growth. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between hepatocyte proliferation and changes in glycosaminoglycan.

METHODS

Hepatocyte proliferation and changes in glycosaminoglycan were investigated in dogs after 55% partial hepatectomy. Hepatocyte mitosis was investigated by immunohistochemistry using anti-proliferating cell nuclear antigen antibody. The amount of glycosaminoglycan was determined by the carbazole-sulfuric acid method. We used a new method for analysis of glycosaminoglycan chains, involving endo-beta-xylosidase digestion and fluorescence labelling, to investigate the components of glycosaminoglycan.

RESULTS

Hepatocyte mitosis was increased after hepatectomy, reaching a peak at postoperative day 7. The total amount of hepatic glycosaminoglycan reached a maximum at 1 to 2 weeks afer hepatectomy, and the ratio of the components showed a concomitant change, the amount of heparan sulfate increasing, and that of chondroitin sulfate/dermatan sulfate decreasing. Increased heparan sulfate has shorter chains at 1 to 2 weeks after hepatectomy.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that the transient changes in heparan sulfate with a decreased chain length and chondroitin sulfate/dermatan sulfate and observed during liver regeneration are associated with hepatocyte proliferation.