Photochemical properties of a photosystem II subchloroplast fragment

My journey to photosynthesis

I provide here both my personal and scientific autobiography. After giving a background and summary of most of my research, I present information on my parents, my childhood, schooling, university education, and postdoctoral research, all in Australia. This is followed by a presentation of my life and research in Cambridge, UK and then at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), in Australia, since 1955, where most of my research was done, especially on photosynthesis which included the following areas: Purification of a protochlorophyllide-protein complex; separation of the photochemical systems of photosynthesis; development of photochemical activity in photosynthesis; protein synthesis in plants; comparative photosynthesis of sun and shade plants; role of chlorophyll b in photosynthesis; photochemical properties of C4 plants; molecular interaction of thylakoid membranes; electron transport and ATP formation; and solar energy conversion in photosynthesis. In addition to research on the basics and applications of photosynthesis, I also mention at the end my service as a member of the executive of CSIRO.

Photosynthetic electron transport from water to NADP driven by photosystem II in inside-out chloroplast vesicles

It is now widely held that the light-induced noncyclic (linear) electron transport from water to NADP(+) requires the collaboration in series of the two photosystems that operate in oxygen-evolving cells: photosystem II (PSII) photooxidizes water and transfers electrons to photosystem I (PSI); PSI photoreduces ferredoxin, which in turn reduces NADP(+) (the Z scheme). However, a recently described alternative scheme envisions that PSII drives the noncyclic electron transport from water to ferredoxin and NADP(+) without the collaboration of PSI, whose role is limited to cyclic electron transport [Arnon, D. I., Tsujimoto, H. Y. & Tang, G. M.-S. (1981) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78, 2942-2946]. Reported here are findings at variance with the Z scheme and consistent with the alternative scheme. Thylakoid membrane vesicles were isolated from spinach chloroplasts by the two-phase aqueous polymer partition method. Vesicles, originating mainly from appressed chloroplast membranes that are greatly enriched in PSII, were turned inside-out with respect to the original sidedness of the membrane. With added plastocyanin, ferredoxin, and ferredoxin-NADP(+) reductase, the inside-out vesicles enriched in PSII gave a significant photoreduction of NADP(+) with water as electron donor, under experimental conditions that appear to exclude the participation of PSI.

Chlorophyll composition and photochemical activity of photosystems detached from chloroplast grana and stroma lamellae

A stroma fraction that has photosystem 1 activity and grana lamellae fractions that have activities for both photosystems were isolated by differential centrifugation of a needle valve homogenate. Subsequent fractions, corresponding to photosystems 1 (F-1D) and 2 (F-2D) were isolated by digitonin treatment of the grana lamellae (P-10K) and compared with respect to their chlorophyll composition and electron transport activities.Fraction F-2D from grana lamellae having photosystem 2 activity is primarily active in photosystem 2 and contains only the four major forms of chlorophyll a with a predominance of chlorophyll a 677 nm. This fraction differs from the original grana membranes in the absence of the longwavelength form of chlorophyll a and in the widening of the absorption band of chlorophyll a 682 nm from 10.9 to 15.6 nm.Photosystem 1 particles from grana and stroma both have high photosystem 1 activity but differ from each other in the proportions of the four major forms of chlorophyll a. The short-wavelength forms of chlorophyll a and also chlorophyll b 650 nm in particles from grana lamellae comprise relatively more total area than these same forms in the particles from stroma. In addition, the fraction corresponding to photosystem 1 from grana lamellae is not shifted to the long-wavelength side of the main absorption maximum, as compared to the photosystem 2 particles from grana and the original grana membrane fraction; this is usually observed in fractions that have photosystem 1 activity. Furthermore, the longest wavelength form of chlorophyll a in the photosystem 1 particles from grana is at 700 nm, while in the same fraction from stroma, it is at 706 nm.The half-width of the four main forms of chlorophyll a and both forms of chlorophyll b in the photosystem 1 fraction from grana is narrower than that of the corresponding forms in the same fraction from stroma. This may indicate a different packing of pigment molecules that are aggregated on the surface of membranes of these two fractions.

Redox and acid-base characterization of cytochrome b-559 in photosystem II particles

The redox and acid/base states and midpoint potentials of cytochrome b-559 have been determined in oxygen-evolving photosystem II (PS II) particles at room temperature in the pH range from 6.5 to 8.5. At pH 7.5 the fresh PS II particles present about 2/3 of their cytochrome b-559 in its reduced and protonated (non-auto-oxidizable) high-potential form and about 1/3 in its oxidized and non-protonated low-potential form. Potentiometric reductive titration shows that the protonated high-potential couple is pH-independent (E'0, + 380 mV), whereas the low-potential couple is non-protonated and pH-independent above pH 7.6 (E'0, pH greater than 7.6, + 140 mV), but becomes pH-dependent below this pH, with a slope of -72 mV/pH unit. Moreover, evidence is presented that in PS II particles cytochrome b-559 can cycle, according to its established redox and acid/base properties, as an energy transducer at two alternate midpoint potentials and at two alternate pKa values. Red light absorbed by PS II induces reduction of cytochrome b-559 in these particles at room temperature, the reaction being completely blocked by dichlorophenyldimethylurea.

Lateral heterogeneity in the distribution of chlorophyll-protein complexes of the thylakoid membranes of spinach chloroplasts

The lateral distribution of the main chlorophyll-protein complexes between appressed and non-appressed thylakoid membranes has been studied. The reaction centre complexes of Photosystems I and II and the light-harvesting complex have been resolved by an SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoretic method which permits most of the chlorophyll to remain protein-bound. The analyses were applied to subchloroplast fractions shown to be derived from different thylakoid regions. Stroma thylakoids were separated from grana stacks by centrifugation following chloroplast disruption by press treatment or digitonin. Vesicles derived from the grana partitions were isolated by aqueous polymer two-phase partition. A substantial depletion in the amount of Photosystem I chlorophyll-protein complex and an enrichment in the Photosystem II reaction centre complex and the light-harvesting complex occurrred in the appressed grana partition region. The high enrichment in this fraction compared to grana stack fractions derived from press or digitonin-treatments, suggests that the grana Photosystem I is restricted mainly to the non-appressed grana end membranes and margins, and that the grana partitions possess mainly Photosystem II reaction centre complex and the light-harvesting complex. In contrast, stroma thylakoids are highly enriched in the Photosystem I reaction centre complex. They possess also some 10--20% of the total Photosystem II reaction centre complex and the light-harvesting complex. The ratio of light-harvesting complex to Photosystem II reaction centre complex is rather constant in all subchloroplast fractions suggesting a close association between these complexes. This was not so for the ratio of light-harvesting complex and the Photosystem I reaction centre complex. The lateral heterogeneity in the distribution of the photosystems between appressed and non-appressed membranes must have a profound impact on current understanding of both the distribution of excitation energy and photosynthetic electron transport between the photosystems.

Isolation and characterization of photosystem I and II membrane particles from the blue-green alga, Synechococcus cedrorum

Fractions enriched in either Photosystem I or Photosystem II activity have been isolated from the blue-green alga, Synechococcus cedrorum after digitonin treatment. Sedimentation of this homogenate on a 10--30% sucrose gradient yielded three green bands: the upper band was enriched in Photosystem II, the lowest band was enriched in Photosystem I, while the middle band contained both activities. Large quantities of both particles were isolated by zonal centrifugation, and the material was then further purified by chromatography on DEAE-cellulose. The resulting Photosystem II particles carried out light-induced electron transport from semicarbizide to ferricyanide of over 2000 mumol/mg Chlorophyll per h (which was sensitive to 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1, 1-dimethylurea), and was nearly devoid of Photosystem I activity. This particle contains beta-carotene, very little phycocyanin, has a chlorophyll absorption maximum at 675 nm, and a liquid N2 fluorescence maximum at 685 nm. The purest Photosystem II particles have a chlorophyll to cytochrome b-559 ratio of 50 : 1. The Photosystem I particle is highly enriched in P-700, with a chlorophyll to P-700 ratio of 40 : 1. The physical structure of the two Photosystem particles has also been studied by gel electrophoresis and electron microscopy. These results indicate that the size and protein composition of the two particles are distinctly different.

Isolation of photosystem II enriched membrane vesicles from spinach chloroplasts by phase partition

Partition in an aqueous Dextran-polyethylene glycol two-phase system has been used for the separation of chloroplast membrane vesicles obtained by press treatment of a grana-enriched fraction after unstacking in a low salt buffer. The fractions obtained were analysed with respect to chlorophyll, photochemical activities and ultrastructural charasteristics. The results reveal that the material partitioning to the Dextran-rich bottom phase consisted of large membrane vesicles possessing mainly Photosystem II properties with very low contribution from Photosystem I. Measurements of the H2O to phenyl-p-benzoquinone and ascorbate-Cl2Ind to NADP+ electron transport rates indicate a ratio of around six between Photosystem II and I. The total fractionation procedure could be completed within 2-3 h with high recovery of both the Photosystem II water-splitting activity and the Photosystem I reduction of NADP+. These data demonstrate that press treatment of low-salt destabilized grana membranes yields a population of highly Photosystem-II enriched membrane vesicles which can be discriminated by the phase system. We suggest that such membrane vesicles originate from large regions in the native grana membrane which contain virtually only Photosystem II.

Light-induced changes of absorbance and electron spin resonance in small photosystem II particles

Photosystem II reaction center components have been studied in small system II particles prepared with digitonin. Upon illumination the reduction of the primary acceptor was indicated by absorbance changes due to the reduction of a plastoquinone to the semiquinone anion and by a small blue shifts of absorption bands near 545 nm (C550) and 685 nm. The semiquinone to chlorophyll ratio was between 1/20 and 1/70 in various preparations. The terminal electron donor in this reaction did not cause large absorbance changes but its oxidized form was revealed by a hitherto unknown electron spin resonance (ESR) signal, which had some properties of the well-known signal II but a linewidth and g-value much nearer to those of signal I. Upon darkening absorbance and ESR changes decayed together in a cyclic or back reaction which was stimulated by 3-(3,4 dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea. The donor could be oxidized by ferricyanide in the dark. Illumination in the presence of ferricyanide induced absorbance and ESR changes, rapidly reversed upon darkening, which may be ascribed to the oxidation of a chlorophyll a dimer, possibly the primary electron donor of photosystem II. In addition an ESR signal with 15 to 20 gauss linewidth and a slower dark decay was observed, which may have been caused by a secondary donor.

Laser-flash-activated electron paramagnetic resonance studies of primary photochemical reactions in chloroplasts

Electron paramagnetic resonance studies of the primary reactants of Photosystems I and II have been conducted at cryogenic temperatures after laser-flash activation with monochromatic light.P-700 photooxidation occurs irreversibly in chloroplasts and in Photosystem I fragments after activation with a 730 nm laser flash at a temperature of 35 degrees K. Flash activation of chloroplasts or Photosystem II chloroplast fragments with 660 nm light results in the production of a free-radical signal (g = 2.002, linewidth approximately 8 gauss) which decays with a half-time of 5.0 ms at 35 degrees K. The half-time of decay is independent of temperature in the range of 10-77 degrees K. This reversible signal can be eliminated by preillumination of the sample at 35 degrees K with 660 nm light (but not by 730 nm light), by preillumination with 660 nm light at room temperature in the presence of 3-(3',4'-dichlorophenyl)-1,1'-dimethylurea (DCMU) plus hydroxylamine, or by adjustment of the oxidation-reduction potential of the chloroplasts to - 150 mV prior to freezing. In the presence of ferricyanide (20-50 mM), two free-radical signals are photoinduced during a 660 nm flash at 35 degrees K. One signal decays with a half-time of 5 ms, whereas the second signal is formed irreversibly. These results are discussed in terms of a current model for the Photosystem II primary reaction at low temperature which postulates a back-reaction between P-680+ and the primary electron acceptor.

Chloroplast membranes of the green alga Acetabularia mediterranea. I. Isolation of the photosystem II

1. In the presence of Triton X-100, chloroplast membranes of the green alga Acetabularia mediterranea were disrupted into two subchloroplast fragments which differed in buoyant density. Each of these fractions had distinct and unique complements of polypeptides, indicating an almost complete separation of the two fragments. 2. One of the two subchloroplast fractions was enriched in chlorophyll b. It exhibited Photosystem II activity, was highly fluorescent and was composed of particles of approx. 50 A diameter. 3. The light-harvesting chlorophyll-protein complex of the Photosystem II-active fraction had a molecular weight of 67 000 and contained two different subunits of 23 000 and 21 500. The molecular ratio of these two subunits was 2:1.