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Vitamin A and Retinoids as Mitochondrial Toxicants. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2015; 2015:140267. [PMID: 26078802 PMCID: PMC4452429 DOI: 10.1155/2015/140267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Accepted: 04/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Vitamin A and its derivatives, the retinoids, are micronutrient necessary for the human diet in order to maintain several cellular functions from human development to adulthood and also through aging. Furthermore, vitamin A and retinoids are utilized pharmacologically in the treatment of some diseases, as, for instance, dermatological disturbances and some types of cancer. In spite of being an essential micronutrient with clinical application, vitamin A exerts several toxic effects regarding redox environment and mitochondrial function. Moreover, decreased life quality and increased mortality rates among vitamin A supplements users have been reported. However, the exact mechanism by which vitamin A elicits its deleterious effects is not clear yet. In this review, the role of mitochondrial dysfunction in the mechanism of vitamin A-induced toxicity is discussed.
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Short-term vitamin A supplementation at therapeutic doses induces a pro-oxidative state in the hepatic environment and facilitates calcium-ion-induced oxidative stress in rat liver mitochondria independently from permeability transition pore formation. Cell Biol Toxicol 2008; 25:545-60. [DOI: 10.1007/s10565-008-9111-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2008] [Accepted: 11/12/2008] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Klamt F, Roberto de Oliveira M, Moreira JCF. Retinol induces permeability transition and cytochrome c release from rat liver mitochondria. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2005; 1726:14-20. [PMID: 16202537 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2005.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2004] [Revised: 07/14/2005] [Accepted: 07/18/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Biological actions of retinoids on modulation of cellular gene expression by nuclear receptors are widely known. Recently, extra-nuclear effects of retinoids have been proposed, but remain to be better elucidated. Considering that retinoids induce apoptosis in tumor cells by an unknown mechanism, and that mitochondria play a key role in controlling apoptosis via cytochrome c (cyt c) release, we exposed rat liver mitochondria to 3-40 microM of retinol (vitamin A), and observed that retinol causes mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) and cyt c release, in a concentration-dependent pattern. Increased superoxide anion generation and lipoperoxidation were also observed. Cyclosporin A or trolox co-administration reverted all parameters tested. In view of these findings, we conclude that retinol induces mitochondria oxidative damage, leading to MPT and cyt c release by opening of the permeability transition pore, thus suggesting a putative mechanism of apoptosis activation by retinol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fábio Klamt
- Centro de Estudos em Estresse Oxidativo, Departamento de Bioquímica, ICBS/Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.
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Hamzah J, Davis TME, Skinner-Adams TS, Beilby J. Characterization of the effect of retinol on Plasmodium falciparum in vitro. Exp Parasitol 2004; 107:136-44. [PMID: 15363939 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2004.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2003] [Revised: 05/06/2004] [Accepted: 06/15/2004] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A preliminary study from our laboratory found retinol (vitamin A alcohol) to have in vitro activity against Plasmodium falciparum at concentrations close to those in normal human serum (1-3 microM). To characterize the antimalarial potential of retinol in more detail, the 3D7 and K1 laboratory strains of P. falciparum were maintained in continuous culture and [3H]hypoxanthine incorporation and microscopy were used to assess the effect of retinol against asexual stages of the parasite life-cycle. Losses of retinol and retinol-associated hemolysis were also quantified in the in vitro culture system. There were retinol losses of >50% but no hemolysis was observed with added retinol concentrations up to 100 microM. All stages of parasite development showed comparable sensitivity to retinol including merozoite invasion (range of mean IC50 values 10.1-21.4 microM after adjustment for losses). Retinol pre-treatment of uninfected RBC did not inhibit merozoite invasion. Retinol treatment was associated with increased vacuolization within the parasite food vacuole and evidence of parasite membrane rupture. These appearances were similar to those seen with quinoline and artemisinin compounds. Although these data do not support a role for acute retinol supplementation in the treatment of falciparum malaria, they add to knowledge regarding potential antimalarial therapies and justify assessment of more potent synthetic retinoids and their metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Hamzah
- University of Western Australia, School of Medicine and Pharmacology, Fremantle Hospital, PO Box 480, 6160.
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Abstract
Interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (IRBP) greatly enhances the conversion of all- trans -retinol to 11- cis -retinal by the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and facilitates 11- cis -retinal release from the RPE. However, the mechanisms by which IRBP exerts these effects are not clear. Using a model system of purified bovine IRBP and isolated bovine RPE membranes, we investigated the possibility that IRBP may favor the delivery of all- trans -retinol to, or the release of 11- cis -retinal from, RPE membranes. As the interphotoreceptor space contains serum retinol-binding protein (RBP) and serum albumin in addition to IRBP, we similarly examined the exchange of retinoids between RPE membranes and human RBP or bovine serum albumin (BSA). Isolated RPE membranes were loaded with radioactive 11- cis -retinal and incubated with solutions of IRBP, RBP, BSA or with buffer alone. Membranes (pellet) and retinoid-binding protein or buffer (supernatant) were separated by centrifugation and analysed for radioactive 11- cis -retinal. Membranes incubated with buffer alone released only 4-5% of their 11- cis -retinal, while 25 microm IRBP removed 18-35%. More retinal was released as the membrane concentration was reduced. In contrast, RBP and BSA removed little retinal, even though both proteins are capable of binding this retinoid. Similar results were obtained with bovine liver membranes, consistent with the idea that the effects of IRBP do not depend on an RPE surface receptor for IRBP. IRBP was also markedly superior to RBP and BSA in removing all- trans -retinol from RPE membranes. In addition, IRBP efficiently delivered bound all- trans -retinol to membranes; however, in contrast to their differential removal of retinoids, all three binding proteins delivered comparable amounts of retinol to membranes. (This result supports the practice of using BSA as a retinoid carrier in in vitro experimental systems). We conclude that, whereas IRBP shares with other retinoid-binding proteins the ability to deliver retinol to membranes, IRBP is unique in its capacity to remove 11- cis -retinal from membranes. This may be the feature of IRBP that drives the vitamin A cycle to efficiently produce 11- cis -retinal.
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Affiliation(s)
- R B Edwards
- Schepens Eye Research Institute, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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Rigobello MP, Scutari G, Friso A, Barzon E, Artusi S, Bindoli A. Mitochondrial permeability transition and release of cytochrome c induced by retinoic acids. Biochem Pharmacol 1999; 58:665-70. [PMID: 10413304 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-2952(99)00149-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Retinoic acids, structurally related to vitamin A, inhibit the in vitro proliferation of different types of normal and neoplastic cells. The effects of all-trans, 9-cis, and 13-cis retinoic acids were tested on mitochondria isolated from rat liver. All the compounds were able to induce the membrane permeability transition observed as swelling and decrease in membrane potential, but 13-cis retinoic acid appeared to be the most effective. The latter was also shown to stimulate the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, suggesting a potential target of retinoids in the induction of cell apoptosis. Interestingly, EGTA and cyclosporin A, which strongly inhibit the permeability transition induced by 13-cis retinoic acid, were without effect on the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondrial intermembrane space.
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Affiliation(s)
- M P Rigobello
- Dipartimento di Chimica Biologica, Università di Padova, Italy
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Hogan CJ, Wiley JS, Billington T. Intravascular haemolysis complicating treatment of acute promyelocytic leukaemia with all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA). AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE 1997; 27:450-1. [PMID: 9448894 DOI: 10.1111/j.1445-5994.1997.tb02213.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
MESH Headings
- Acute Kidney Injury/etiology
- Administration, Oral
- Anemia, Hemolytic/blood
- Anemia, Hemolytic/chemically induced
- Anemia, Hemolytic/complications
- Antineoplastic Agents/administration & dosage
- Antineoplastic Agents/adverse effects
- Antineoplastic Agents/therapeutic use
- Australia
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Fatal Outcome
- Hemolysis/drug effects
- Humans
- Leukemia, Promyelocytic, Acute/blood
- Leukemia, Promyelocytic, Acute/complications
- Leukemia, Promyelocytic, Acute/drug therapy
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Tretinoin/administration & dosage
- Tretinoin/adverse effects
- Tretinoin/therapeutic use
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Shidoji Y, Nakamura N, Moriwaki H, Muto Y. Rapid loss in the mitochondrial membrane potential during geranylgeranoic acid-induced apoptosis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1997; 230:58-63. [PMID: 9020060 DOI: 10.1006/bbrc.1996.5883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
A synthetic geranylgeranoic acid (GGA) induced apoptotic cell death in a human hepatoma cell line, HuH-7, but not in mouse primary cultured hepatocytes. Prior to chromatin condensation, GGA induced a dramatic loss of the mitochondrial membrane potential in 1 hour and in a dose dependent manner in HuH-7 cells, but not in the primary hepatocytes. Pretreatment with synthetic tetrapeptide cysteine protease inhibitor, either acetyl-Tyr-Val-Ala-Asp-chloromethylketone or acetyl-Asp-Glu-Val-Asp-aldehyde, blocked GGA-induced apoptosis without preventing a rapid loss of the mitochondrial membrane potential. alpha-Tocopherol prevented the cells from GGA-induced apoptosis as well as from a rapid loss of the membrane potential. The present study strongly suggests that GGA induces apoptosis in hepatoma cells through derangement of mitochondrial function and subsequent activation of the cysteine protease cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Shidoji
- First Department of Internal Medicine, Gifu University School of Medicine, Tsukasa-machi, Japan
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Cheng LL, Wilkie D. Mitochondrial activity and cytotoxicity of vitamin A (retinol) in yeast and human cell cultures. Protective effect of antioxidants. Biochem Pharmacol 1991; 42:1237-40. [PMID: 1888332 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(91)90259-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Vitamin A inhibited the growth of yeast and human cells in a dose-dependent but selective manner in cultures utilizing a non-fermentable carbon and energy source. At sub-inhibitory concentrations in yeast cultures (approximately 100 micrograms/mL), the vitamin had a stimulatory effect on the mitochondrial system, foreshortening the lag phase in the adaptation to non-fermentable substrate. At inhibitory concentrations, vitamin A depressed mitochondrial protein synthesis relative to cytoplasmic protein synthesis and induced the mitochondrial mutation petite but had little or no mutagenicity with respect to nuclear genes at the concentrations used. The vitamin showed a dose-dependent cytotoxicity (lethality) in both yeast and human cells. All of these deleterious effects were overcome to a large extent by the presence of antioxidants implicating free-radical metabolites in much of the toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- L L Cheng
- Department of Biology, University College London, U.K
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Edwards RB, Adler AJ, Claycomb RC. Requirement of insulin or IGF-1 for the maintenance of retinyl ester synthetase activity by cultured retinal pigment epithelial cells. Exp Eye Res 1991; 52:51-7. [PMID: 1868886 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4835(91)90127-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Previous work from these laboratories showed that the retention of retinyl ester synthetase activity by cultured human retinal pigment epithelium is up to tenfold greater with PM medium (Medium 199 plus insulin, other added defined components, 1% serum and 1% retina extract) than with conventional culture media. The present work shows that insulin is the component of PM medium required for maintenance of ester synthetase activity and that insulin-like growth factor type 1 (IGF-1) also is effective at maintaining ester synthesis. In addition, insulin can maintain ester synthetase activity in cultured rat RPE. Preliminary dose-response measurements provide additional support for these findings and strongly suggest that both insulin and IGF-1 are maximally effective at physiological concentrations (1-10 ng ml-1).
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Affiliation(s)
- R B Edwards
- Boston University School of Medicine, Department of Ophthalmology, MA 02118
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Abstract
As the title implies, any assessment of the toxic effects of vitamin A derivatives must distinguish between vitamin A in the truest sense, i.e. retinol, and retinoic acid and its synthetic derivatives. Just as no single description is universally applicable to the mode of action of vitamin A derivatives, so too do their toxic effects defy generalization. The recommendation made in 1982 by IUPAC [Eur. J. Biochem., 129 (1989) 1] to designate all derivatives with the typical structure of the vitamin as being retinoids may be chemically logical and correct but, when it comes to describing the effects and side-effects of vitamin A derivatives, it leads to misunderstandings. Retinol, which is frequently used as synonym for vitamin A, can eliminate all symptoms of vitamin A deficiency if it is taken in sufficient quantity with the diet. The term retinol will therefore be used here as a synonym for vitamin A whereas retinoic acid and its derivatives--including the synthetic ones--will be referred to as retinoids because they do not cover the whole spectrum of effects exerted by retinol and because they also vary markedly in their side-effects. In contrast to the nomenclature proposed by IUPAC, this system provides a clear and logical distinction for describing biological processes. Other authors have favoured it in recent times [Chytil, F., J. Am. Acad. Dermatol., 15 (1986) 741; Olson, J.A., Semin. Oncol., x (3) (1983) 290; Olson, J.A., Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 45 (1987) 704; Zbinden, G., Acta Dermatovener., 74 (1975) 36]. By vitamin A, therefore, is meant all derivatives that can possibly originate from retinol in the organism. This also covers the small quantities of retinoic acid formed from retinol. On the other hand, by retinoids is meant the natural retinoic acid derivatives and their synthetic forms in their special modes of action. Since retinoic acid cannot be reduced to retinol in the organism, this nomenclature provides a clear demarcation within the biological system. Vitamin A is essential to the growth and development of higher life forms and functions in many different ways within the organism. Although vitamin A was one of the first vitamins to be described, even today there is still some uncertainty as to its mode of action, with the exception of that of retinal (vitamin A aldehyde) in vision.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- H K Biesalski
- Institut für Physiologische Chemie II, Universität Mainz, F.R.G
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Influence of retinoids on the osmotic stability of erythrocytes. Pharm Chem J 1987. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00759427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Edwards RB, Adler AJ, Southwick RE. Maintenance of retinyl ester synthetase activity in cultured human retinal pigment epithelial cells. Exp Eye Res 1987; 45:187-90. [PMID: 3653286 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-4835(87)80090-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- R B Edwards
- Berman-Gund Laboratory for the Study of Retinal Degenerations, HarvardMedical School, Boston, MA
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Bhushan B, Ninjoor V, Nadkarni GB. Activity of radiation degradation products of vitamins A and E to haemolyse erythrocyte. J Biosci 1985. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02716792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Lee VH, Carson LW. Possible mechanisms for the retention of topically applied vitamin A (retinol) in the albino rabbit eye. JOURNAL OF OCULAR PHARMACOLOGY 1985; 1:297-308. [PMID: 3880081 DOI: 10.1089/jop.1985.1.297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The concentration of vitamin A in various anterior segment tissues of the albino rabbit eye following topical instillation of a 1 mg/ml drug solution in peanut oil was determined using radiotracer techniques. It was found that 50-80% of the vitamin A absorbed into the albino rabbit eye was in the corneal epithelium and the conjunctiva and that over 50% of the vitamin A in the cornea was in its epithelial layers. While trace amounts of topically applied peanut oil remained in the precorneal area as late as 2 hours post-dosing, the vitamin A dissolved in it did not appear to play a major role in sustaining vitamin A concentration within the eye. Rather, solubilization of vitamin A by the proteins in tears as well as by the cellular lipids and retinol-binding proteins in the corneal epithelium appear to play a more important role. It is suggested that further work is necessary to delineate the specific involvement of retinol-binding proteins in ocular vitamin A pharmacokinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- V H Lee
- University of Southern California, School of Pharmacy, Los Angeles
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Berman ER, Segal N, Photiou S, Rothman H, Feeney-Burns L. Inherited retinal dystrophy in RCS rats: a deficiency in vitamin A esterification in pigment epithelium. Nature 1981; 293:217-20. [PMID: 7278978 DOI: 10.1038/293217a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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