Estradiol-induced synthesis of vitellogenin. III. The isolation and characterization of vitellogenin messenger RNA from avian liver

Reproductive management of poultry

Based on data from the UN's Food and Agricultural Organization, about 120 million metric tons of poultry meat were produced globally in 2016. In addition, about 82 million metric tons of eggs were produced. One of the bases for this production is the reproductive efficiency of today's poultry. This, in turn, is due to their inherent reproductive physiology, intensive genetic selection and advances in husbandry/management. The system of reproduction in males in largely similar to that in mammals except that there is no descent of testes. In females, there are marked differences with there being a single ovary and oviduct; the latter being the name of the differentiated entire Müllerian duct. Moreover, females produce eggs with a yolky oocyte surrounded by albumen, membranes and shell. Among the most successful reproductive management techniques are optimizing photoperiod, light intensity and nutrition. Widespread employment of these has allowed maximizing production. Laying hens can be re-cycled toward the end egg production. Other aspects of reproductive management in poultry include the following: artificial insemination (almost exclusively employed in turkeys) and approaches to reduce broodiness together with cage free (colony), conventional, enriched and free-range systems.

Rudimentary phosvitin domain in a minor chicken vitellogenin gene

We have determined the nucleotide sequence and the derived amino acid sequence of the phosphoprotein-encoding region of the chicken vitellogenin III gene. The sequence of this minor vitellogenin could be aligned with exon 22 up to exon 27 of the previously sequenced major vitellogenin II gene (van het Schip et al., 1987). The exon 23 and 25 sequences are rich in serine codons (26% and 41%, respectively), and this region encodes at least one of the small egg yolk phosphoproteins. The major egg yolk phosphoprotein, phosvitin, is encoded by the analogous region in vitellogenin II. Comparison of the vitellogenin II and vitellogenin III sequences shows a great reduction in the size of the putative exon 23 of the latter (321 base pairs as opposed to 690). The number of serine codons is also drastically reduced from 124 in exon 23 of the vitellogenin II gene to 28 in vitellogenin III. The grouping of synonymous serine codons, as has hitherto been observed in sequenced vitellogenin phosphoproteins, has been maintained in vitellogenin III. A putative asparagine-linked N-glycosylation site which was conserved in the chicken vitellogenin II and the Xenopus laevis vitellogenin A2 gene, at the beginning of exon 23, is also present in vitellogenin III. The two chicken vitellogenins show a low conservation in the phosphoprotein-encoding region (average 33%, at the protein level) compared to that in the peripheral sequences (58% identity), which indicates that it is a rapidly evolving domain of the vertebrate vitellogenin gene.

Turnover products of the apo very low density lipoprotein II messenger RNA from chicken liver

The mature apo Very Low Density Lipoprotein II (apo VLDLII) mRNA appears in chicken liver within a few hours after estrogen administration. Apart from this mRNA species, shorter RNA molecules hybridizing to apo VLDLII sequences have been detected in rooster liver upon estrogen stimulation. These molecules are present in the non-polyadenylated fraction of the total cellular- and polysomal RNA. Northern blotting and electron microscopy of R-loops were employed to show that these shorter RNA molecules are truncated at their 3'-end. The 3'-termini were further characterized by nuclease S1 analyses, and are located predominantly in the 3' untranslated region of the mRNA. Using a secondary structure model (Shelness and Williams, J. Biol. Chem. 260, 8637-8646, 1985), we show that the 3' termini map mainly in unpaired regions of the structure.

Nucleotide sequence of a chicken vitellogenin gene and derived amino acid sequence of the encoded yolk precursor protein

The gene encoding the major vitellogenin from chicken has been completely sequenced and its exon-intron organization has been established. The gene is 20,342 base-pairs long and contains 35 exons with a combined length of 5787 base-pairs. They encode the 1850-amino acid pre-peptide of vitellogenin, which is the precursor of the mature yolk proteins, the serine-rich and heavily phosphorylated phosvitin and the lipovitellin. The 217-amino acid phosvitin polypeptide occupies an internal position (residue 1112 through 1328) within the vitellogenin molecule. The 125,000 and 30,000 Mr lipovitellin polypeptides are encoded by the sequences at the N-terminal and the C-terminal sides of the phosvitin section, respectively. The main features of the gene and protein sequences, and the evolutionary implications, are discussed.

Hen vitellogenin genes: a study of the distribution of phosvitin phosphoprotein coding sequences using mRNA hybridization with synthetic complementary oligonucleotide probes

Pentadecamer DNA probes were synthesized, having complementary codons for selected unique pentapeptide sequences of low codon degeneracy present in hen phosvitin minor phosphoprotein, hen phosvitin major phosphoprotein, both phosvitin phosphoproteins. These probes were 5'-32P-labelled. Vitellogenin mRNA was isolated from estrogenized chick liver, fractionated by electrophoresis using formaldehyde/agarose gels and blot transferred to nitrocellulose paper. Relative yields of the two vitellogenin mRNAs differed with the extraction method used. The minor phosphoprotein DNA probe formed a hybrid with a 1.6 megadalton component. The remaining two probes hybridized to a 2.3 megadalton component, this being the expected size of a full-length message. The smallest polyadenylated fragment to which the major phosphoprotein DNA probe hybridized was 1.0 megadalton. The remaining two probes hybridized to fragments of 0.7 megadalton and possibly smaller. Phosvitin major phosphoprotein is concluded to be coded for by part of the larger vitellogenin mRNA, while the minor phosphoprotein is coded for by part of the smaller vitellogenin mRNA. Estimates of the distances of the hybridization sites from polyadenylated tails are also given.

Estradiol-dependent transcription initiation upstream from the chicken apoVLDLII gene coding for the very-low-density apolipoprotein II

We have investigated RNAs originating from the 5'-flanking region of the chicken very-low-density apolipoprotein II (apoVLDLII) gene. S1 nuclease mapping and primer extension experiments revealed two minor upstream transcription start points located 1105 and 1530 nucleotides in front of the apoVLDLII gene. Transcription starting at these points is dependent upon estradiol as is transcription from the major start points. The transcripts are polyadenylated, but are not detectable in polysomes. Run-on assays indicated that the low concentration of the upstream initiated transcripts is due both to low transcription levels and to low transcript stability. The sequence around the upstream start points does not show strong homologies with consensus sequences of promoters for eukaryotic protein encoding genes. Nevertheless, the upstream sequences are transcribed in vivo by RNA polymerase II.

Splicing pathways of the chicken apo very low density lipoprotein II (pre)messenger RNA

The precursor-mRNA transcribed from the chicken apo very low density lipoprotein II gene was identified. This gene which is under full estrogen control and only expressed in the liver, possesses three introns. Splicing intermediates were characterized by hybridization with intron-specific probes, and by electron microscopy of R-loops. The introns appear to be excised in a non-obligatory order, but at different rates.

Isolation and characterization of a cDNA clone specific for avian vitellogenin II

A clone for vitellogenin, a major avian, estrogen responsive egg yolk protein, was isolated from the cDNA library of estrogen-induced rooster liver. Two forms of plasma vitellogenin, vitellogenin I (VTG I) and vitellogenin II (VTG II), distinguishable on the basis of their unique partial proteolysis maps, have been characterized and their corresponding hepatic precursor forms identified. We have used this criterion to specifically characterize which vitellogenin protein had been cloned. Partial proteolysis maps of BTG I and VTG II standards, synthesized in vivo, were compared to maps of protein synthesized in vitro using RNA hybrid-selected by the vitellogenin plasmid. Eight major digest fragments were found common to the in vitro synthesized vitellogenin and the VTG II standard while no fragments were observed to correspond to the VTG I map. A restriction map of the VTG II cDNA clone permits comparison to previously described cDNA and genomic vitellogenin clones.

The size and distribution of cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV mRNA between free and membrane-bound polyribosomes

A length of 990 +/- 80 nucleotides was estimated for the poly(A)-rich mRNA in the higher-molecular-weight precursor of rat liver cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV. Assuming a molecular weight of 19500 for the cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV precursor, a non-coding region of about 350 nucleotides must exist. In experiments on the site of synthesis it is shown that the poly(A)-rich RNA for the higher-molecular-weight precursor of cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV is found in free, loosely and tightly membrane-bound polyribosomes. This finding does not agree with the present picture of free polysomes as the exclusive site of synthesis for mitochondrial proteins.

Estradiol-induced vitellogenin synthesis in duck liver

We have studied the induction of vitellogenin by estradiol in duck liver. From the accumulation of vitellogenin in blood plasma we calculated that the rate of vitellogenin synthesis increases linearly with time for about 4 days after estradiol administration. Vitellogenin from chicken and duck cross-react immunologically and their mRNAs show only 7% sequence divergence. We could therefore determine vitellogenin mRNA content of duck liver using chicken vitellogenin cDNA as a hybridization probe. The number of vitellogenin mRNA molecules per hepatocyte increases from less than one in normal duck liver to 18 000 at 4 days after estradiol injection. The rate of vitellogenin synthesis in vivo is roughly proportional to vitellogenin mRNA content, although the data suggest a somewhat enhanced translation of vitellogenin mRNA at later times after hormone administration. Vitellogenin mRNA levels had returned to control values after 4 weeks after hormone administration. In the first 11 h after secondary administration of hormone vitellogenin mRNA accumulates at an only slightly higher rate than is observed after primary hormonal stimulation.

Translation in vivo and in vitro of mRNAs coding for vitellogenin, serum albumin and very-low-density lipoprotein II from chicken liver. A difference in translational efficiency

Characterisation of polysomes from estrogenized chicken liver revealed that very-low-density lipoprotein II (VLDLII), serum albumin and vitellogenin mRNAs are differently packed with ribosomes during translation in vivo. Tne ribosome density per number of nucleotides is high for VLDLII mRNA, intermediate for serum albumin mRNA and low for vitellogenin mRNA. This difference in ribosomal load is maintained throughout the period of hormone effect. The differential utilisation observed for vitellogenin and VLDLII mRNAs partly explains the large difference in molar production rate between these yolk protein precursors. Translation properties and efficiency of the three hepatic mRNAs were also compared in the mRNA-depleted reticulocyte lysate. Elongation of the nascent chains for vitellogenin and serum albumin proceeded in a discontinuous fashion. Initiation in vitro was studied at varying ionic strengths, in the presence of aurintricarboxylic acid, and at suboptimal hemin concentrations. VLDLII mRNA expression is by far the most resistant to 7-methylguanosine 5'-triphosphate (m7GTP) and high salt concentrations, vitellogenin mRNA the least. This behaviour resembles the differential utilisation of the mRNAs in vivo. The putative structural basis of these differences is discussed.

Purification of mouse immunoglobulin heavy-chain messenger RNAs from total myeloma tumor RNA

A procedure is described for the large-scale purification of light (L) and heavy (H) chain mRNAs from plasmacytomas produced in mice. Intact RNA is selectively precipitated in high yield from frozen tumors homogenized in 3 M LiCl and 6 M urea. L and H-chain mRNAs were purified by oligo(dT)-cellulose chromatography and either sucrose gradient centrifugation in conditions preventing aggregation or by means of high-resolution preparative gel electrophoresis under non-denaturing conditions. gamma 2a and alpha H-chain mRNAs sedimented as major components at 15.5 S and 16.5 S respectively, when L-chain mRNAs sedimented as 12-S species. H-chain mRNAs isolated by continuous elution during preparative gel electrophoresis were completely separated from both L-chain mRNA and residual 18-S rRNA, and migrated as single components of 1900 +/- 50 nucleotides on analytical denaturing gels. The partially purified H-chain mRNAs were translated into major components of molecular weights of 56,000 (gamma 2a) and 60,000 (alpha) in an mRNA-dependent rabbit reticulocyte lysate, whereas L-chain mRNAs yielded polypeptides of molecular weights of 25,000 (gamma) and 27,000 (chi). Up to 95% of the translation products directed by the purified mRNAs were immunoprecipitated using specific antisera. The purity of L and H-chain mRNAs was assessed by hybridization of corresponding cDNAs with excess recombinant plasmid DNA. The results indicated a minimum purity of 47% (gamma 2a), 62% (alpha), for H-chain mRNAs and 60% (chi), for L-chain mRNAs.

Synthesis of vitellogenin, an attractive model for investigating hormone-induced gene activation

The estrogen-induced synthesis of vitellogenin in the frog Xenopus and the chicken is an attractive system for investigating the molecular events leading to the activation of a specific gene. In this review article the events occurring at the level of the protein and mRNA in the cytoplasm are discussed. The available data show that the induction of vitellogenin synthesis is due to the accumulation of the corresponding vitellogenin mRNA in the cytoplasm. This suggests that transcriptional or posttranscriptional events in the nucleus are activated by the hormone. The few experiments investigating the processes in the nuclear compartment are reviewed.

Estradiol-induced synthesis of vitellogenin. IV. The isolation of non-degraded polysomes from avian liver using an endogenous ribonuclease inhibitor

A procedure allowing the isolation of intact polysomes from rooster liver is described. Good recovery of polysomes is achieved by the presence of Triton X-100 in the homogenization and centrifugation steps since the detergent prevents the sedimentation of microsomes with the nuclear fraction. This sedimentation of microsomes leads to considerable losses of polysomes, especially the larger ones. In the detergent-treated homogenate the integrity of the polysomes is threatened by various ribonucleases, some of which can be effectively inhibited by the addition of both heparin and yeast RNA. The remaining nuclease activity is counteracted by the endogenous ribonuclease inhibitor of the liver. In estradiol-treated roosters, sufficient endogenous inhibitor is present to inhibit its specific ribonuclease, but in control roosters there is not. This difference is due to a hormone-mediated increase in inhibitor level and decrease in nuclease level. Consequently, for an estrogenized rooster, the addition of both heparin and yeast RNA to the homogenate suffices to stabilize the polysomes, whereas control rooster liver homogenate needs supplementation with endogenous ribonuclease inhibitor. The cytosol of estrogenized rooster liver can be used as a crude inhibitor preparation. Rat liver cytosol is only partially effective; this may indicate a certain degree of species specificity of the inhibitor. The isolation procedure described also yields large polysomes from the livers of duck and Xenopus.

Electron-microscopic demonstration of terminal and internal initiation sites for cDNA synthesis on vitellogenin mRNA

cDNA synthesized on purified vitellogenin mRNA from Xenopus liver was hybridized to the template in formamide/urea at 22 degrees C to avoid degradation of the RNA. The hybrids formed were visualized by spreading for electron microscopy. Contour length measurements proved that most of the RNA molecules in the hybrids were still intact showing the expected molecular weight of 2.3 x 10(6). The hybridized cDNA corresponded on the average to 12% of the RNA length. In about 80% of the molecules the cDNA was located at one end. Since cDNA synthesis was primed by oligo(dT), the terminal duplex region marks the 3' end of the vitellogenin mRNA molecule. Internal duplex regions were mainly located at a specific position starting about 2800 nucleotides from the 3' end. Since the cDNA hybridizing at the internal position could specifically be synthesized on a vitellogenin RNA fragment isolated on poly(U)-Sepharose as an oligo(A)-containing RNA, we conclude that cDNA synthesis is not only initiated by the poly(A) of the 3' end, but also by a specific internal sequence.