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Samat R, Sen S, Jash M, Ghosh S, Garg S, Sarkar J, Ghosh S. Venom: A Promising Avenue for Antimicrobial Therapeutics. ACS Infect Dis 2024. [PMID: 39137302 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.4c00314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/15/2024]
Abstract
Venom in medicine is well documented in the chronicles of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire and persisted into the Renaissance and even into the modern era. Venoms were not always associated with detrimental consequences. Since ancient times, the curative capacity of venom has been recognized, portraying venom as a metaphor for pharmacy and medicine. Venom proteins and peptides' antimicrobial potential has not undergone systematic exploration despite the huge literature on natural antimicrobials. In light of the escalating challenge of antimicrobial resistance and the diminishing effectiveness of antibiotics, there is a pressing need for innovative antimicrobials capable of effectively addressing illnesses caused by multidrug-resistant microorganisms. This review adds to our understanding of the effectiveness of different venom components against a host of pathogenic microorganisms. The aim is to illuminate the various antimicrobials present in venom and venom peptides, thereby emphasizing the unexplored medicinal potential for antimicrobial properties. We have presented a concise summary of the molecular examination of the venom peptides' functioning processes, as well as the current clinical and preclinical progress of venom antimicrobial peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramkamal Samat
- Smart Healthcare Department, Interdisciplinary Research Platform, Indian Institute of Technology, Jodhpur, Rajasthan 342030, India
| | - Samya Sen
- Department of Bioscience and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Jodhpur, Rajasthan 342030, India
- iHUB Drishti Foundation, Indian Institute of Technology, Jodhpur, Rajasthan 342030, India
| | - Moumita Jash
- Department of Bioscience and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Jodhpur, Rajasthan 342030, India
| | - Satyajit Ghosh
- Department of Bioscience and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Jodhpur, Rajasthan 342030, India
| | - Shubham Garg
- Department of Bioscience and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Jodhpur, Rajasthan 342030, India
| | - Jayita Sarkar
- Centre for Research and Development of Scientific Instruments (CRDSI), Indian Institute of Technology, Jodhpur, Rajasthan 342030, India
| | - Surajit Ghosh
- Department of Bioscience and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Jodhpur, Rajasthan 342030, India
- Smart Healthcare Department, Interdisciplinary Research Platform, Indian Institute of Technology, Jodhpur, Rajasthan 342030, India
- iHUB Drishti Foundation, Indian Institute of Technology, Jodhpur, Rajasthan 342030, India
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Kalita B, Utkin YN, Mukherjee AK. Current Insights in the Mechanisms of Cobra Venom Cytotoxins and Their Complexes in Inducing Toxicity: Implications in Antivenom Therapy. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14120839. [PMID: 36548736 PMCID: PMC9780984 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14120839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxins (CTXs), an essential class of the non-enzymatic three-finger toxin family, are ubiquitously present in cobra venoms. These low-molecular-mass toxins, contributing to about 40 to 60% of the cobra venom proteome, play a significant role in cobra venom-induced toxicity, more prominently in dermonecrosis. Structurally, CTXs contain the conserved three-finger hydrophobic loops; however, they also exhibit a certain degree of structural diversity that dictates their biological activities. In their mechanism, CTXs mediate toxicity by affecting cell membrane structures and membrane-bound proteins and activating apoptotic and necrotic cell death pathways. Notably, some CTXs are also responsible for depolarizing neurons and heart muscle membranes, thereby contributing to the cardiac failure frequently observed in cobra-envenomed victims. Consequently, they are also known as cardiotoxins (CdTx). Studies have shown that cobra venom CTXs form cognate complexes with other components that potentiate the toxic effects of the venom's individual component. This review focuses on the pharmacological mechanism of cobra venom CTXs and their complexes, highlighting their significance in cobra venom-induced pathophysiology and toxicity. Furthermore, the potency of commercial antivenoms in reversing the adverse effects of cobra venom CTXs and their complexes in envenomed victims has also been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhargab Kalita
- Amrita School of Nanosciences and Molecular Medicine, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kochi 682041, India
| | - Yuri N. Utkin
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Ashis K. Mukherjee
- Institute of Advanced Study in Science and Technology, Guwahati 781035, India
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, India
- Correspondence:
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Characteristics of Snakebite-Related Infection in French Guiana. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14020089. [PMID: 35202117 PMCID: PMC8878173 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14020089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Wound infection is frequently reported following snakebite (SB). This study is retrospective. It was conducted in the emergency department and the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) of Cayenne General Hospital between 1 January 2016 and 31 July 2021. We included 172 consecutive patients hospitalized for SB envenoming. All patients were monitored for wound infection. Sixty-three patients received antibiotics at admission (36.6%). The main antibiotic used was amoxicillin–clavulanate (92.1%). Wound infection was recorded in 55 cases (32%). It was 19% in grade 1, 35% in grade 2, and 53% in grade 3. It included abscess (69.1%), necrotizing fasciitis (16.4%), and cellulitis (21.8%). The time from SB to wound infection was 6 days (IQR: 3–8). The main isolated microorganisms were A. hydrophila and M. morganii (37.5% and 18.8% of isolated organisms). Surgery was required in 48 patients (28.1%), and a necrosectomy was performed on 16 of them (33.3%). The independent factors associated with snakebite-associated infection were necrosis (p < 0.001, OR 13.15, 95% CI: 4.04–42.84), thrombocytopenia (p = 0.002, OR: 3.37, 95% CI: 1.59–7.16), and rhabdomyolysis (p = 0.046, OR: 2.29, 95% CI: 1.02–5.19). In conclusion, wound infection following SB is frequent, mainly in grade 2 and 3 envenomed patients, especially those with necrosis, thrombocytopenia, and rhabdomyolysis. The main involved bacteria are A. hydrophila and M. morganii.
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Xie C, Bittenbinder MA, Slagboom J, Arrahman A, Bruijns S, Somsen GW, Vonk FJ, Casewell NR, García-Vallejo JJ, Kool J. Erythrocyte haemotoxicity profiling of snake venom toxins after nanofractionation. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2021; 1176:122586. [PMID: 33839052 PMCID: PMC7613003 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2021.122586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Snakebite is classified as a priority Neglected Tropical Disease by the World Health Organization. Understanding the pathology of individual snake venom toxins is of great importance when developing more effective snakebite therapies. Snake venoms may induce a range of pathologies, including haemolytic activity. Although snake venom-induced erythrocyte lysis is not the primary cause of mortality, haemolytic activity can greatly debilitate victims and contributes to systemic haemotoxicity. Current assays designed for studying haemolytic activity are not suitable for rapid screening of large numbers of toxic compounds. Consequently, in this study, a high-throughput haemolytic assay was developed that allows profiling of erythrocyte lysis, and was validated using venom from a number of medically important snake species (Calloselasma rhodostoma, Daboia russelii, Naja mossambica, Naja nigricollis and Naja pallida). The assay was developed in a format enabling direct integration into nanofractionation analytics, which involves liquid chromatographic separation of venom followed by high-resolution fractionation and subsequent bioassaying (and optional proteomics analysis), and parallel mass spectrometric detection. Analysis of the five snake venoms via this nanofractionation approach involving haemolytic assaying provided venom-cytotoxicity profiles and enabled identification of the toxins responsible for haemolytic activity. Our results show that the elapid snake venoms (Naja spp.) contained both direct and indirect lytic toxins, while the viperid venoms (C. rhodostoma and D. russelii) only showed indirect lytic activities, which required the addition of phospholipids to exert cytotoxicity on erythrocytes. The haemolytic venom toxins identified were mainly phospholipase A2s and cytotoxic three finger toxins. Finally, the applicability of this new analytical method was demonstrated using a conventional snakebite antivenom treatment and a small-molecule drug candidate to assess neutralisation of venom cytotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunfang Xie
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Matyas A Bittenbinder
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Julien Slagboom
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Arif Arrahman
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Sven Bruijns
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Govert W Somsen
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Freek J Vonk
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK; Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Juan J García-Vallejo
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam Infection and Immunity Institute, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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Detection and identification of antibacterial proteins in snake venoms using at-line nanofractionation coupled to LC-MS. Toxicon 2018; 155:66-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Sulca M, Remuzgo C, Cárdenas J, Kiyota S, Cheng E, Bemquerer M, Machini M. Venom of the Peruvian snake Bothriopsis oligolepis : Detection of antibacterial activity and involvement of proteolytic enzymes and C-type lectins in growth inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus. Toxicon 2017; 134:30-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Revised: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Perumal Samy R, Stiles BG, Franco OL, Sethi G, Lim LH. Animal venoms as antimicrobial agents. Biochem Pharmacol 2017; 134:127-138. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2017.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Al-Asmari AK, Abbasmanthiri R, Abdo Osman NM, Siddiqui Y, Al-Bannah FA, Al-Rawi AM, Al-Asmari SA. Assessment of the Antimicrobial Activity of Few Saudi Arabian Snake Venoms. Open Microbiol J 2015; 9:18-25. [PMID: 26668657 PMCID: PMC4676055 DOI: 10.2174/1874285801509010018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2014] [Revised: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Venoms of two cobras, four vipers, a standard antibiotic and an antimycotic, were evaluated comparatively, as antimicrobials. Methods: Six venom concentrations and three of the standard antibiotic and the antimycotic were run in micro-dilution and diffusion plates against the microorganisms. RESULTS: Echis pyramidum, Echis coloratus
and Cerastes cerastes gasperettii highest venom concentrations gave significant growth inhibition zones (GIZ) with
respect to a negative control, except Bitis arietans, whose concentrations were significant. The cobra Walterinnesia aegyptia
had significant venom concentrations more than Naja haje arabica. The Staphylococcus aureus Methicillin Resistant
(MRSA) bacterium was the most susceptible, with a highly (P < 0.001) significant GIZ mean difference followed by
the Gram positive Staphylococcus aureus, (P < 0.001), Escherichia coli (P < 0.001), Enterococcus faecalis (P < 0.001)
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa which, had the least significance (P < 0.05). The fungus Candida albicans was resistant to
both viper and cobra venoms (P > 0.05). The antibiotic Vancomycin was more effective than snake venoms though, they
were more efficient in inhibiting growth of the resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This antibiotic was also inactive
against the fungus, whilst its specific antifungal Fungizone was highly efficient with no antibacterial activity. Conclusions: These findings showed that snake venoms had antibacterial activity comparable to antibiotics, with a directly proportional
relationship of venom concentration and GIZ, though, they were more efficient in combatting resistant types of
bacteria. Both venoms and the standard antibiotic, showed no antifungal benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Sarah A Al-Asmari
- Dentistry, Prince Sultan Military Medical City, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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Perumal Samy R, Gopalakrishnakone P, Thwin MM, Chow TKV, Bow H, Yap EH, Thong TWJ. Antibacterial activity of snake, scorpion and bee venoms: a comparison with purified venom phospholipase A2 enzymes. J Appl Microbiol 2007; 102:650-9. [PMID: 17309613 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2006.03161.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Venoms of snakes, scorpions, bees and purified venom phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) enzymes were examined to evaluate the antibacterial activity of purified venom enzymes as compared with that of the crude venoms. METHODS AND RESULTS Thirty-four crude venoms, nine purified PLA(2)s and two L-amino acid oxidases (LAAO) were studied for antibacterial activity by disc-diffusion assay (100 microg ml(-1)). Several snake venoms (Daboia russelli russelli, Crotalus adamanteus, Naja sumatrana, Pseudechis guttata, Agkistrodon halys, Acanthophis praelongus and Daboia russelli siamensis) showed activity against two to four different pathogenic bacteria. Daboia russelli russelli and Pseudechis australis venoms exhibited the most potent activity against Staphylococcus aureus, while the rest showed only a moderate activity against one or more bacteria. The order of susceptibility of the bacteria against viperidae venoms was -S. aureus > Proteus mirabilis > Proteus vulgaris > Enterobacter aerogenes > Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) against S. aureus was studied by dilution method (160-1.25 microg ml(-1)). A stronger effect was noted with the viperidae venoms (20 microg ml(-11)) as compared with elapidae venoms (40 microg ml(-1)). The MIC were comparable with those of the standard drugs (chloramphenicol, streptomycin and penicillin). CONCLUSION The present findings indicate that viperidae (D. russelli russelli) and elapidae (P. australis) venoms have significant antibacterial effects against gram (+) and gram (-) bacteria, which may be the result of the primary antibacterial components of laao, and in particular, the PLA(2) enzymes. The results would be useful for further purification and characterization of antibacterial agents from snake venoms. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The activity of LAAO and PLA(2) enzymes may be associated with the antibacterial activity of snake venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Perumal Samy
- Venom and Toxin Research Programme, Department of Anatomy, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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Nair D, Fry B, Alewood P, Kumar P, Kini R. Antimicrobial activity of omwaprin, a new member of the waprin family of snake venom proteins. Biochem J 2007; 402:93-104. [PMID: 17044815 PMCID: PMC1783991 DOI: 10.1042/bj20060318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We have isolated and characterized omwaprin, a 50-amino-acid cationic protein from the venom of inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus). It is a new member of the waprin family of snake venom proteins. A synthetic gene was designed and constructed for expressing the recombinant protein in Escherichia coli. Recombinant omwaprin was used for carrying out functional analyses. The protein is non-toxic to Swiss albino mice at doses of up to 10 mg/kg when administered intraperitoneally. However, it shows selective and dose-dependant antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria. The minimum inhibitory doses were in the range 2-10 microg for selected species of bacteria in radial diffusion assays. The antibacterial activity is salt-tolerant up to 350 mM NaCl. However, omwaprin lost its antibacterial activity upon reduction and alkylation of its cysteine residues, or upon deletion of six N-terminal amino acid residues, four of which are positively charged. These observations indicate that the three-dimensional structure constrained by four disulfide bonds and the N-terminal residues are essential for its activity. The mechanism of action is via membrane disruption, as shown by scanning electron microscopy. Importantly, omwaprin lacks haemolytic activity on human erythrocytes. This demonstrates the specificity of omwaprin for bacterial membranes. Unlike other reported WAP (whey acidic protein) domain-containing antibacterial proteins, including elafin, EPPIN (epididymal proteinase inhibitor), SWAM1 and SWAM2 [single WAP (whey acidic protein) motif proteins 1 and 2] and SLPI (secretory leucocyte proteinase inhibitor), omwaprin shows species-specific activity on the Gram-positive bacteria tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dileep G. Nair
- *Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
| | - Bryan G. Fry
- *Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
- †Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia 4072
| | - Paul Alewood
- †Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia 4072
| | - Prakash P. Kumar
- *Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
- ‡Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory, 1 Research Link, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117604
- Correspondence may be addressed to either of these authors (email or )
| | - R. Manjunatha Kini
- *Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543
- §Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, U.S.A
- Correspondence may be addressed to either of these authors (email or )
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de Lima DC, Alvarez Abreu P, de Freitas CC, Santos DO, Borges RO, dos Santos TC, Mendes Cabral L, Rodrigues CR, Castro HC. Snake Venom: Any Clue for Antibiotics and CAM? EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE : ECAM 2005; 2:39-47. [PMID: 15841277 PMCID: PMC1062156 DOI: 10.1093/ecam/neh063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2004] [Revised: 12/30/2004] [Accepted: 01/10/2005] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Lately several naturally occurring peptides presenting antimicrobial activity have been described in the literature. However, snake venoms, which are an enormous source of peptides, have not been fully explored for searching such molecules. The aim of this work is to review the basis of antimicrobial mechanisms revealing snake venom as a feasible source for searching an antibiotic prototype. Therefore, it includes (i) a description of the constituents of the snake venoms involved in their main biological effects during the envenomation process; (ii) examples of snake venom molecules of commercial use; (iii) mechanisms of action of known antibiotics; and (iv) how the microorganisms can be resistant to antibiotics. This review also shows that snake venoms are not totally unexplored sources for antibiotics and complementary and alternative medicine (CAM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Deivy Clementino de Lima
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Modelagem Molecular (LaBioMol), Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal FluminenseCEP 24001-970, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Paula Alvarez Abreu
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Modelagem Molecular (LaBioMol), Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal FluminenseCEP 24001-970, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Cícero Carlos de Freitas
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Modelagem Molecular (LaBioMol), Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal FluminenseCEP 24001-970, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Dilvani Oliveira Santos
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Modelagem Molecular (LaBioMol), Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal FluminenseCEP 24001-970, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Oliveira Borges
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Modelagem Molecular (LaBioMol), Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal FluminenseCEP 24001-970, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | | | - Lúcio Mendes Cabral
- Instituto Nacional de Controle de Qualidade em SaúdeFundação Oswaldo Cruz, RJ, Brazil
| | - Carlos R. Rodrigues
- Laboratório de Modelagem Molecular e QSAR (ModMolQSAR), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio de JaneiroCEP 21941-590, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Helena Carla Castro
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Modelagem Molecular (LaBioMol), Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal FluminenseCEP 24001-970, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
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Abstract
The objective was to ascertain whether local snake venoms have antibacterial properties. The venoms of the common night adder (Causus rhombeatus), gaboon adder (Bitis gabonica), puff adder (Bitis arietans), black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis), eastern green mamba (Dendroaspis augusticeps), forest cobra (Naja melanoleuca), snouted cobra (Naja annulifera) and Mozambique spitting cobra (Naja mossambica) were collected and, by gel diffusion, tested against the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeriginosa, Bacteriodes fragilis, Bacteroides intermedius, Clostridium sordellii and Clostridium perfringens. All snake venoms showed antibacterial activity, with the adders showing most activity against the aerobes while the cobras showed lesser, but equal activity against the aerobes and anaerobes. Black mamba venom only showed activity against C. perfringens. In conclusion, local snake venoms have antibacterial properties which are dependent on the venom and bacterial type; and in the Naja spp., for anaerobic bacteria, diminish in winter. There is liable to be more than one toxin component responsible.
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Grotendorst GR, Hessinger DA. Purification and partial characterization of the phospholipase A2 and co-lytic factor from sea anemone (Aiptasia pallida) nematocyst venom. Toxicon 1999; 37:1779-96. [PMID: 10519655 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(99)00120-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Functional nematocysts of one specific morphological class, the penetrant microbasic mastigophores, were isolated from the sea anemone, Aiptasia pallida. These nematocysts contain a multicomponent venom composed of several proteins, including those with neurotoxic, hemolytic, and lethal activities. Hemolytic activity is produced by at least three synergistic venom proteins. One of these proteins is identified as a phospholipase A2 (EC 3.1.1.4) which exists in two isozymic forms, alpha and beta, with molecular weights of 45,000 and 43,000, respectively. The beta isozyme has been purified to homogeneity. It is a single-chained glycoprotein with an isoelectric point (pI) of 8.8 and represents 70% of the phospholipase activity of the venom. The activity of the beta isozyme is relatively labile and is inactivated by 3.5 M urea or by heating at 45 degrees C. It is most stable at pH 4.0 and loses 50% of its activity at pH values below 3.5 and above 8.0. A second venom protein has also been purified. It is essential for the hemolytic activity of the venom and is termed co-lytic factor (CLF). It is a monomeric glycoprotein having a pI of 4.5. CLF has a molecular weight of approximately 98,000, a sedimentation coefficient of 4.8 S, and is prolate in shape, having a frictional ratio of about 1.6. CLF constitutes about 1.25% of the total venom protein and is assayed by reversing fatty acid inhibition of the venom hemolysis activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- G R Grotendorst
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Miami School of Medicine, FL 33136, USA
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14
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Fernandez-Gomez R, Zerrouk H, Sebti F, Loyens M, Benslimane A, Ouaissi MA. Growth inhibition of Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania donovani infantum by different snake venoms: preliminary identification of proteins from Cerastes cerastes venom which interact with the parasites. Toxicon 1994; 32:875-82. [PMID: 7985193 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(94)90366-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Venom from three different snake species was tested in vitro against the protozoan parasites Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania donovani infantum. Two of them, Cerastes cerastes and Naja haje, exerted a significant growth inhibition of T. cruzi and L. d. infantum parasites. Heating of the venoms abolished their activity, suggesting that the active factors are thermolabile. Incubation of parasites with 125I-labelled C. cerastes venom proteins allowed preliminary identification of components which interact preferentially with the pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Fernandez-Gomez
- Laboratoire de Recherche sur les Trypanosomatidae, INSERM U415, Institut Pasteur de Lille, France
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15
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Stiles BG, Sexton FW, Weinstein SA. Antibacterial effects of different snake venoms: purification and characterization of antibacterial proteins from Pseudechis australis (Australian king brown or mulga snake) venom. Toxicon 1991; 29:1129-41. [PMID: 1796476 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(91)90210-i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Venoms from 30 different snake species were tested in a disc diffusion assay for antibacterial effects against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. A number of venoms gave a zone of inhibition against both groups of bacteria, including Aeromonas hydrophila, an important pathogen of reptiles and amphibians. Two antibacterial components from the venom of an Australian elapid, Pseudechis australis (Australian king brown or mulga snake) were purified to homogeneity. The proteins, designated LAO1 and LAO2, had potent antibacterial properties associated with L-amino acid oxidase activity. Both had native and subunit mol. wts of 142,000 and 56,000, respectively. Antibacterial activity correlated with enzymatic activity and was eliminated with catalase. LAO1 and LAO2 had 244 and 113 units of L-amino acid oxidase activity/mg protein, respectively. Compared to tetracycline, a drug of choice for Aeromonas infections in humans, reptiles and amphibians, the in vitro antibacterial effects of LAO1 and LAO2 were respectively 70 and 17.5 times more effective (on a molar basis).
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Affiliation(s)
- B G Stiles
- Department of Toxinology, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Frederick, MD 21702-5011
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16
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Al-Lahham A, Al-Hassan JM, Thomson M, Criddle RS. A hemolytic protein secreted from epidermal cells of the Arabian Gulf catfish, Arius thalassinus (Ruppell). COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. B, COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY 1987; 87:321-7. [PMID: 3621901 DOI: 10.1016/0305-0491(87)90146-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
1. A fright or shock induced toxic secretion (gel) from the epidermis of the Arabian Gulf catfish, Arius thalassinus, exhibits hemolytic activity when tested against red blood cells from many different sources. 2. An enzyme with hemolytic activity, which represents 1.1% of the total soluble gel protein fraction, has been purified to homogeneity. 3. Molecular sieve chromatography and SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the purified protein indicate a mol. wt of 34,000. 4. One additional protein component with hemolytic activity was found in the epidermal secretion. 5. Specific activity of the catfish epidermal factor is 20.6 units/mg protein, a level somewhat lower than those of most protein hemolytic factors. 6. The catfish hemolytic factor was not ichthyotoxic when tested against small fish and did not cause lethality when administered intravenously to rabbits.
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17
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Stocker JF, Traynor JR. The action of various venoms on Escherichia coli. THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY 1986; 61:383-8. [PMID: 3542922 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1986.tb04300.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The antibacterial activity of honeybee venom (Apis mellifera), three snake venoms (Naja naja sputatrix, Vipera russellii and Crotalus adamanteus) and the polypeptide melittin was investigated against Escherichia coli. Minimum inhibitory concentration values, cell lysis and alterations in cell permeability were determined and action against E. coli was in the order: A. mellifera venom greater than melittin greater than N. naja sputatrix venom much greater than V. russellii venom greater than C. adamanteus venom. Cellular damage by A. mellifera and N. naja sputatrix venoms was evident in electron micrographs.
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18
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Bougis P, Rochat H, Piéroni G, Verger R. A possible orientation change of cardiotoxin molecule during its interaction with phospholipid monolayer. Toxicon 1982; 20:187-90. [PMID: 7080032 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(82)90190-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The monomolecular film technique was used in order to study the specific interactions of 4 cardiotoxins from Elapidae snake venom Naja mossambica mosambica with different phospholipids. The interaction, at pH 7.5, of cardiotoxin (10(-7) M) with both neutral and negatively charged phospholipids occurs up to a very high critical surface pressure (pi = 45 dynes/cm with the latest). The apparent molecular area of cardiotoxin molecule, during its insertion into a negatively charged phospholipid film, presents only two characteristic values: 1400 A2 for pi less than 20 dynes/cm and 420 A2 for pi greater than 30 dynes/cm, the transition occurring in a very narrow range of surface pressure (25 +/- 5 dynes/cm). Thus, according to the surface pressure, the cardiotoxin may present two different orientations: "flat" or "edgewise" and the transition between both could account for lytic activity of cardiotoxin.
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19
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Selectivity of the membrane action of a cytotoxin from the venom of the Central Asian cobra. Chem Nat Compd 1980. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00564865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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20
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Lubimtseva GE, Abibova É, Yukel'son LY. An investigation of the venom of Renard's viperVipera ursini renardi. IV. The hemolytic action of the phospholipases A2. Chem Nat Compd 1980. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00571049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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21
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Joubert FJ, Taljaard N. The complete primary structures of three cytotoxins (CM-6, CM-7 and CM-7A) from Naja naja kaouthia (Siamese cobra) snake venom. Toxicon 1980; 18:455-67. [PMID: 7210030 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(80)90053-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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22
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Comparative study of the hemolytic action of two cytotoxins from the venom of the Central Asian cobraNaja oxiana Eichwald. Chem Nat Compd 1980. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00564882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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23
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Sosa BP, Alagón AC, Possani LD, Juliá JZ. Comparison of phospholipase activity with direct and indirect lytic effects of animal venoms upon human red cells. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. B, COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY 1979; 64:231-4. [PMID: 318305 DOI: 10.1016/0305-0491(79)90167-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
1. The venoms of 22 species of arthropods, saurians, elapids and crotalids were studied concerning the phospholipase activity and the presence of a direct and an indirect lytic effect upon human red cells. 2. The venoms from the spiders Latrodectus and "tarantula", and the venoms from the scorpions of the genus Centruroides are not haemolytic and do not have phospholipase activity. 3. Only the venoms of Apis mellifera and Naja naja siamensis have shown direct lytic effect. 4. All other venoms studied have an indirect haemolytic effect associated to a phospholipase activity, but there is indication that other agents might be implicated in the haemolytic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- B P Sosa
- Departmento de Neurociencias, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, D.F., México
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24
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Joubert FJ. Snake venom toxins. The amino-acid sequences of three toxins (9B, 11 and 12A) from Hemachatus haemachatus (Ringhals) venom. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1977; 74:387-96. [PMID: 404150 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1977.tb11403.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Three toxins (9B, 11 and 12A) were purified from the venom of Hemachtus haemachatus as described previously. Whereas toxin 11 and 12A comprise 61 amino acid residues, toxin 9B contains 63 residues. All three toxins are cross-linked by four intrachain disulphide bridges. The complete amino acid sequences of these toxins have elucidated. The properties of the toxins were compared with those of the cytotoxin group. The toxicities, the sequences and some of the invariant residues of toxin 11 and 12A resemble the corresponding properties of the cytotoxin group. However their immunochemical properties indicate that they are distinct from both the cytotoxin and neurotoxin groups. The sequence of toxin 9B shows that it is related to the cytotoxins, but its toxicity is much lower than those encountered among members of this group.
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25
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Botes DP, Viljoen CC. The amino acid sequence of three non-curarimimetictoxins from Naja nivea venom. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1976; 446:1-9. [PMID: 823968 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2795(76)90091-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Three toxins of the non-curarimimetic type have been isolated from the venom of the Cape cobra Naja nivea. The basic and hydrophobic amino acids are dominant in all three toxins. They comprise 60 amino acid residues with 4 intrachain disulphide linkages. The toxins have been characterized with respect to their linear structures and immunochemical properties. Toxicity and hemolytic data suggest a much higher affinity for receptors on the heart cell membrane than for that of the red cell.
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26
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Vincent JP, Schweitz H, Chicheportiche R, Fosset M, Balerna M, Lenoir MC, Lazdunski M. Molecular mechanism of cardiotoxin action on axonal membranes. Biochemistry 1976; 15:3171-5. [PMID: 182204 DOI: 10.1021/bi00660a002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cardiotoxin isolated from Naja mossambica mossambica selectively deactivates the sodium-potassium activated adenosine triphosphatase of axonal membranes. Tetrodotoxin binding and acetylcholinesterase activities are unaffected by cardiotoxin treatment. The details of association of cardiotoxin with the axonal membrane were studied by following the deactivation of the sodium-potassium activated adenosine triphosphatase and by direct binding measurements with a tritiated derivative of the native cardiotoxin. The maximal binding capacity of the membrane is 42-50 nmol of cardiotoxin/mg of membrane protein. The high amount of binding suggests association of the toxin with the lipid phase of the membrane. It has been shown that cardiotoxin first associates rapidly and reversibly to membrane lipids, then, in a second step, it induces a rearrangement of the membrane structure which produces and irreversible deactivation of the sodium-potassium activated adenosine triphosphatase. Solubilization of the membrane-bound ATPase with Lubrol WX gives an active enzyme species that is resistant to cardiotoxin-induced deactivation. Cardiotoxin binding to the membrane is prevented by high concentrations of Ca 2+ and dibucaine. Although cardiotoxins and neurotoxins of cobra venom have large sequence homologies, their mode of action on membranes is very different. The cardiotoxin seems to bind to the lipid phase of the axonal membrane and inhibits the sodium-potassium activated adenosine triphosphatase, whereas the neurotoxin associates with a protein receptor in the post-synaptic membrane and blocks acetylcholine transmission.
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27
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Hessinger DA, Lenhoff HM. Membrane structure and function. Mechanism of hemolysis induced by nematocyst venom: roles of phospholipase A and direct lytic factor. Arch Biochem Biophys 1976; 173:603-13. [PMID: 5957 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(76)90297-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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28
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Bieber AL, Tu T, Tu AT. Studies of an acidic cardiotoxin isolated from the venom of Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus). BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1975; 400:178-88. [PMID: 238654 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2795(75)90139-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A major lethal protein was isolated from the venom of Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus) by successive purification in DEAE column chromatography and isoelectric focusing. This homogeneous and monomeric form of toxin is designated as "Mojave toxin". Unlike basic neurotoxins or cytotoxins isolated from venoms of cobras, kraits and sea snakes, the Mojave toxin is an acidic protein with an isoelectric point of 4.7. The toxin is also different from crotoxin (from Crotalus durissus terrificus) which consists of both acidic and basic components. The molecular weight determined by Sephadex G-75 column chromatography resulted in a value of about 22 000. A singel protein band with a molecular weight of about 12 000, was observed after sodium dodecyl sulfate gel electrophoresis of the reduced Mojave toxin. Isoelectric focusing gel in the presence of 8 M urea also showed a single protein band, suggesting that the toxin is composed of subunits. Unlike the neurotoxic nature of the basic proteins from the venoms of Elapidae and sea snakes (Hydrophiidae) and crotoxin, Mojave toxin is cardiotoxic rather than neurotoxic. It is very likely that venoms of all rattlesnakes from North and Central America contain Mojave toxin as the common toxin.
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29
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Kirschenbaum DM. A compilation of amino acid analyses of proteins. VII. Residues per molecule-5. Anal Biochem 1975; 66:123-50. [PMID: 1096669 DOI: 10.1016/0003-2697(75)90732-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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30
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Spoerri PE, Jentsch J, Glees P. Apamin from bee venom. Effects of the neurotoxin on subcellular particles of neural cultures. FEBS Lett 1975; 53:143-7. [PMID: 1170096 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(75)80006-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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31
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Joubert FJ. Hemachatus haemachatus (Ringhals) venom. Purification, some properties and amino-acid sequence of phospholipase A (fraction DE-I). EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1975; 52:539-44. [PMID: 1236145 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1975.tb04025.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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32
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Lin SY, Huang MC, Tseng WC, Lee CY. Comparative studies on the biological activities of cardiotoxin, melittin and prymnesin. NAUNYN-SCHMIEDEBERG'S ARCHIVES OF PHARMACOLOGY 1975; 287:349-58. [PMID: 167293 DOI: 10.1007/bf00500037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The actions of cardiotoxin (CTX), melittin and prymnesin were compared on dog erythrocytes, chicken biventer cervicis muscle, rabbit conjunctiva, acetylcholinesterase, succinate-cytochrome c reductase and turbidity of the rat liver mitochondrial suspension. 1. CTX and melittin were approximately equipotent in the various biological activities, while prymnesin was not. 2. The rate of direct ehmolysis induced by CTX was slow, while that induced by either melittin or prymnesin was fast. 3. Phosphate ions, 10mM Ca++, as well as 1 mM reduced glutathione, considerably inhibited the CTX-induced hemolysis, but only slightly inhibited that induced by melittin or prymnesin. 4. CTX, melittin and prymnesin caused contracture of the chicken biventer cervicis muscle. Prymnesin was much less active in this preparation as compared with its hemolytic potency. The CTX contracture was completely inhibited by high Ca++ (10mM) medium, while the melittin contracture was not. 5. The rate of CTX contracture to reach the peak tension was increased when the concentration of CTX was increased, while the rate of melittin contracture did not change very much as the concentrations varied. 6. All three toxins caused a local irritation of the conjunctival sac of the rabbit eye. 7. Both CTX and melittin inhibited acetylcholinesterase and succinate-cytochrome c reductase activities, and also increased the turbidity of the rat liver mitochondrial suspension, while prymnesin was totally inactive in these respects. It is concluded that the mechanism of actions of these toxins may be different at the molecular level. The role of the detergent properties of these toxins in their biological activities is discussed.
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Grishin EV, Sukhikh AP, Adamovich TB. The isolation and sequence determination of a cytotoxin from the venom of the Middle-Asian cobra Naja naja oxiana. FEBS Lett 1974; 48:179-83. [PMID: 4435217 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(74)80462-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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34
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Condrea E. Membrane-active polypeptides from snake venom: cardiotoxins and haemocytotoxins. EXPERIENTIA 1974; 30:121-9. [PMID: 4592382 DOI: 10.1007/bf01927688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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35
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36
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37
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Zwaal RF, Roelofsen B, Colley CM. Localization of red cell membrane constituents. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1973; 300:159-82. [PMID: 4276919 DOI: 10.1016/0304-4157(73)90003-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 371] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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38
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Kirschenbaum DM. Molar absorptivity and A 1 per cent-1 cm values for proteins at selected wavelengths of the ultraviolet and visible regions. 8. Anal Biochem 1973; 55:166-92. [PMID: 4753144 DOI: 10.1016/0003-2697(73)90302-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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39
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Boquet P, Poilleux G, Dumarey C, Izard Y, Ronsseray AM. An attempt to classify the toxic proteins of Elapidae and Hydrophiidae venoms. Toxicon 1973; 11:333-40. [PMID: 4201576 DOI: 10.1016/0041-0101(73)90030-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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40
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Strydom DJ. Snake venom toxins. Structure-function relationships and phylogenetics. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. B, COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY 1973; 44:269-81. [PMID: 4684005 DOI: 10.1016/0305-0491(73)90364-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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41
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Fajnholc N, Condrea E, De Vries A. Activation of enzymes in red blood cell membranes by a basic protein isolated from cobra venom. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1972; 255:850-7. [PMID: 5063095 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2736(72)90397-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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42
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Schroeter R, Lankisch PG, Lege L, Vogt W. Possible implication of glutathione reductase in haemolysis by the direct lytic factor of cobra venom (Naja naja). NAUNYN-SCHMIEDEBERG'S ARCHIVES OF PHARMACOLOGY 1972; 275:203-11. [PMID: 4404949 DOI: 10.1007/bf00508908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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43
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Miranda F, Kupeyan C, Rochat H, Rochat C, Lissitzky S. Purification of animal neurotoxins. Isolation and characterization of four neurotoxins from two different sources of Naja haje venom. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1970; 17:477-84. [PMID: 5531254 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1970.tb01190.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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46
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47
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48
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Tu AT, Passey RB, Toom PM. Isolation and characterization of phospholipase A from sea snake, Laticauda semifasciata venom. Arch Biochem Biophys 1970; 140:96-106. [PMID: 5460187 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(70)90013-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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49
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Condrea E, Barzilay M, Mager J. Role of cobra venom direct lytic factor and Ca2+ in promoting the activity of snake venom phospholipase A. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1970; 210:65-73. [PMID: 4989544 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2760(70)90062-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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