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Abstract
My chemical training provided a somewhat different perspective of biolo-gical problems, in the problem itself and approaches to its solution. I was fortunate to have in my laboratory postdocs and students who shared this perspective and used appropriate tools to address problems in amphetamine pharmacology and air pollution toxicology. These apparently disparate areas of research shared two chemical reactions: prooxidant-based generation of reactive oxygen and formation of covalent bonds between electrophiles and biological nucleophiles. This article is an attempt to summarize that research and to identify those individuals who made the contributions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur K Cho
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Department of Environmental Health Sciences, UCLA Center for the Health Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA;
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Vevelstad M, Øiestad EL, Bremer S, Bogen IL, Zackrisson AL, Arnestad M. Is toxicity of PMMA (paramethoxymethamphetamine) associated with cytochrome P450 pharmacogenetics? Forensic Sci Int 2016; 261:137-47. [PMID: 26930544 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.02.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2015] [Revised: 01/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In 2010-2013, 29 fatal intoxications related to the designer drug paramethoxymethamphetamine (PMMA, 4-methoxymethamphetamine) occurred in Norway. The current knowledge about metabolism and toxicity of PMMA in humans is limited. Metabolism by the polymorphic cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2D6 enzyme to the psychoactive metabolite 4-hydroxymethamphetamine (OH-MA), and possibly by additional enzymes, is suggested to be involved in its toxicity. The aim of this work was to study the association between CYP genetics, PMMA metabolism and risk of fatal PMMA toxicity in humans. The frequency distribution of clinically relevant gene variants of CYP2D6, CYP2C9, CYP2C19 and CYP3A5, and the phenotypic blood CYP2D6 metabolic ratio (OH-MA/PMMA) in particular, were compared in fatal PMMA intoxications (n=17) and nonfatal PMMA abuse controls (n=30), using non-abusers (n=305) as references for the expected genotype frequencies in the Norwegian population. Our study demonstrated that the CYP2D6 enzyme and genotype are important in the metabolism of PMMA to OH-MA in humans, but that other enzymes are also involved in this biotransformation. In the fatal PMMA intoxications, the blood concentrations of PMMA were higher and the CYP2D6 metabolic ratios were lower, than in the nonfatal PMMA abuse controls (median (range) 2.1 (0.03-5.0) vs 0.3 (0.1-0.9) mg/L, and ratio 0.6 (0.0-4.6) vs 2.1 (0.2-7.4) p=0.021, respectively). Overall, our findings indicated that, in most cases, PMMA death occurred rapidly and at an early stage of PMMA metabolism, following the ingestion of large and toxic PMMA doses. We could not identify any genetic CYP2D6, CYP2C9, CYP2C19 or CYP3A5 predictive marker on fatal toxicity of PMMA in humans. The overrepresentation of the CYP2D6 poor metabolizer (PM) genotype found in the nonfatal PMMA abuse controls warrants further investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merete Vevelstad
- Division of Forensic Sciences, Norwegian Institute of Public Health (NIPH), P.O. Box 4404, Nydalen, N-0403 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Elisabeth Leere Øiestad
- Division of Forensic Sciences, Norwegian Institute of Public Health (NIPH), P.O. Box 4404, Nydalen, N-0403 Oslo, Norway; School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Sara Bremer
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet, P.O. Box 4950, N-0424 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Inger Lise Bogen
- Division of Forensic Sciences, Norwegian Institute of Public Health (NIPH), P.O. Box 4404, Nydalen, N-0403 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Anna-Lena Zackrisson
- National Board of Forensic Medicine, Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, Artillerigatan 12, SE-58758 Linkøping, Sweden.
| | - Marianne Arnestad
- Division of Forensic Sciences, Norwegian Institute of Public Health (NIPH), P.O. Box 4404, Nydalen, N-0403 Oslo, Norway; Center for Psychopharmacology, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
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Selective inhibition of MAO-A in serotonergic synaptosomes by two amphetamine metabolites, p-hydroxyamphetamine and p-hydroxynorephedrine. Neurochem Int 2012; 17:587-92. [PMID: 20504661 DOI: 10.1016/0197-0186(90)90046-v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/1989] [Accepted: 04/03/1990] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The present study was carried out mainly to clarify whether the two amphetamine metabolites, p-hydroxyamphetamine (P-OHA) and p-hydroxynorephedrine (p-OHN) are taken up by mouse brain 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) nerve terminals to inhibit type A monoamine oxidase (MAO-A) and then potentiate the abnormal behavior, head-twitch. Of the two metabolites, only intracerebroventricular p-OHA, at 80 ?g/mouse, sufficient to cause a head-twitch response (HTR), appreciably inhibited MAO-A activity without affecting MAO-B activity in homogenates of the mouse striatum, hypothalamus and the rest of the forebrain; and p-OHN did not inhibit either type of MAO at the dose tested. Estimation of intra- and extrasynaptosomal MAO-A activity showed that both metabolites significantly inhibited only the intrasynaptosomal deamination of 5-HT by MAO-A with p-OHA being more potent. Taken together with our previous findings, these present results clearly indicate that p-OHA may accumulate in the 5-HT nerve terminals through the uptake system, and concomitantly inhibit MAO-A activity. These actions of p-OHA may increase intraneuronal 5-HT levels and then potentiate 5-HT release to cause interaction with the post-synaptic 5-HT receptors.
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Onogi H, Nakagawasai O, Tan-No K, Mitazaki S, Sato A, Nakaya K, Niijima F, Arai Y, Kikuchi T, Tadano T. p-Hydroxyamphetamine causes prepulse inhibition disruptions in mice: contribution of dopamine neurotransmission. Behav Brain Res 2010; 214:349-56. [PMID: 20540968 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2010.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2010] [Revised: 05/22/2010] [Accepted: 06/01/2010] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
It is well known that amphetamine induces disrupted prepulse inhibition (PPI) in humans and rodents. We have previously reported that intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of p-hydroxyamphetamine (p-OHA) induces multiple behavioral responses, such as increased locomotor activity and head-twitch response in rodents. To reveal the characteristics of p-OHA on sensorimotor function in rodents, herein we tested the effects of p-OHA on PPI in mice. i.c.v. administration of p-OHA dose-dependently induced PPI disruptions for all prepulse intervals tested. This effect of p-OHA on PPI was attenuated by pretreatment with haloperidol or clozapine. p-OHA-induced PPI disruptions were also attenuated by pretreatment with L-741,626 (a selective D(2) receptor antagonist), L-745,870 (a selective D(4) receptor antagonist) or 6-hydroxydopamine (a neurotoxin which targets DA-containing neurons), but not by SCH 23390 (a selective D(1) receptor antagonist), eticlopride (a D(2)/D(3) receptor antagonist) or GBR 12909 (a DA-reuptake inhibitor). These results indicate that selective blockade of either the D(2) or D(4) receptor subtype may prevent disruption of PPI induced by p-OHA via presynaptic DA release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Onogi
- Department of Pharmacology, Tohoku Pharmaceutical University, 4-4-1 Komatsushima, Aoba-ku, Sendai 981-8558, Japan
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Onogi H, Hozumi M, Nakagawasai O, Arai Y, Ishigaki S, Sato A, Furuta S, Niijima F, Tan-No K, Tadano T. Central administration of p-hydroxyamphetamine produces a behavioral stimulant effect in rodents: evidence for the involvement of dopaminergic systems. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2010; 208:323-31. [PMID: 19960188 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-009-1734-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2009] [Accepted: 11/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES It is well-known that amphetamine induces increased locomotor activity in rodents. We previously found that intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of p-hydroxyamphetamine (p-OHA), an amphetamine metabolite, increases synaptic dopamine (DA) levels in the striatum. In the present study, we investigated the effect of p-OHA on locomotor activity in rodents. RESULTS In mice, i.c.v. administration of p-OHA significantly increased locomotor activity in a dose-dependent manner. p-Hydroxynorephedrine, another amphetamine metabolite, did not increase locomotor activity. This effect of p-OHA was inhibited by pretreatment with nomifensine, a dopamine-uptake inhibitor, but not by fluoxetine, a serotonin-uptake inhibitor, or diethyldithiocarbamate, a dopamine-beta-hydroxylase inhibitor. Furthermore, we tested the effects of microinjections of p-OHA into the rat nucleus accumbens (NAc) on locomotor activity. Local infusion of p-OHA into the NAc significantly increased locomotor activity. As in mice, the increased locomotor activity induced by p-OHA microinjection into the NAc in rats was inhibited by nomifensine. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that dopaminergic systems in the NAc may play important roles in p-OHA-induced locomotor activity in rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Onogi
- Department of Pharmacology, Tohoku Pharmaceutical University, 4-4-1 Komatsushima, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 981-8558, Japan
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Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A. Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol 2005; 75:406-33. [PMID: 15955613 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 843] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2004] [Revised: 04/15/2005] [Accepted: 04/18/2005] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Amphetamine and substituted amphetamines, including methamphetamine, methylphenidate (Ritalin), methylenedioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy), and the herbs khat and ephedra, encompass the only widely administered class of drugs that predominantly release neurotransmitter, in this case principally catecholamines, by a non-exocytic mechanism. These drugs play important medicinal and social roles in many cultures, exert profound effects on mental function and behavior, and can produce neurodegeneration and addiction. Numerous questions remain regarding the unusual molecular mechanisms by which these compounds induce catecholamine release. We review current issues on the two apparent primary mechanisms--the redistribution of catecholamines from synaptic vesicles to the cytosol, and induction of reverse transport of transmitter through plasma membrane uptake carriers--and on additional drug effects that affect extracellular catecholamine levels, including uptake inhibition, effects on exocytosis, neurotransmitter synthesis, and metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Sulzer
- Department of Psychiatry, Neurology and Pharmacology, New York State Psychiatric Institute, Columbia University, 650 W. 168th Street, Black Building Room 309, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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Yamada H, Ishii Y, Oguri K. Metabolism of Drugs of Abuse: Its Contribution to the Toxicity and the Inter-Individual Differences in Drug Sensitivity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1248/jhs.51.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hideyuki Yamada
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University
| | - Yuji Ishii
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University
| | - Kazuta Oguri
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyusyu University of Health and Welfare
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Arai Y, Kim SK, Kinemuchi H, Tadano T, Oyama K, Satoh N, Kisara K. Inhibition of brain MAO-A and animal behaviour induced by p-hydroxyamphetamine. Brain Res Bull 1991; 27:81-4. [PMID: 1933439 DOI: 10.1016/0361-9230(91)90284-q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Intra- and extra-synaptosomal activity of monoamine oxidase-A (MAO-A) and -B (MAO-B), dopamine (DA) and its main metabolites were examined to clarify the mechanism of action(s) of p-hydroxyamphetamine (p-OHA) in animal behaviour mediated by central dopaminergic systems. Intrasynaptosomal DA was oxidized by MAO-A and MAO-B and this oxidation is inhibited by p-OHA. The inhibition is due to two effects: 1) uptake of DA is inhibited by p-OHA, and 2) p-OHA also inhibits intrasynaptosomal oxidation of DA by MAO-A and MAO-B. The inhibition of oxidation by MAO-A is predominant. Administration (ICV) of 80 and 160 micrograms p-OHA to mice, doses that cause various behavioural, significantly reduced striatal DA and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) levels, but greatly increased 3-methoxytyramine, without significantly changing homovanillic acid (HVA). The release of DA and blockade of DA uptake into dopaminergic neurons by p-OHA, together with preferential inhibition of the DA metabolizing enzyme, MAO-A, may contribute to p-OHA-induced behaviour mediated by the central dopaminergic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Arai
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Showa University, Tokyo, Japan
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Arai Y, Kim SK, Kinemuchi H, Tadano T, Satoh SE, Satoh N, Kisara K. Inhibition of brain type A monoamine oxidase and 5-hydroxytryptamine uptake by two amphetamine metabolites, p-hydroxyamphetamine and p-hydroxynorephedrine. J Neurochem 1990; 55:403-8. [PMID: 2370545 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1990.tb04151.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Two amphetamine metabolites, p-hydroxyamphetamine (p-OHA) and p-hydroxynorephedrine (p-OHN), selectively inhibited the A form of monoamine oxidase (MAO) in rat and mouse forebrain homogenates. Of these two metabolites, p-OHA inhibited MAO-A more strongly than p-OHN. This MAO-A-selective inhibition by p-OHA or p-OHN was found to be competitive with respect to deamination of its substrate, 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). The degree of MAO-A inhibition was not changed by 90 min of preincubation of the enzyme preparations with either metabolite, and the activity inhibited by p-OHA after the preincubation recovered completely to the control level after repeated washing. Uptake of 5-HT or dopamine into mouse forebrain synaptosomes was highly reduced by both p-OHA and p-OHN. Both metabolites were more potent in reducing dopamine uptake than in reducing 5-HT uptake. In reduction of 5-HT and of dopamine uptake, p-OHA was more potent than p-OHN. These results indicate that p-OHA is a more selective inhibitor of brain MAO-A activity and 5-HT uptake than its subsequent metabolite, p-OHN. These two actions of p-OHA might, together with possible 5-HT efflux into the synaptic cleft, greatly contribute to head twitch, a brain 5-HT-mediated animal behavior induced by p-OHA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Arai
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Showa University, Tokyo, Japan
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Baker GB, Hampson DR, Coutts RT, Micetich RG, Hall TW, Rao TS. Detection and quantitation of a ring-hydroxylated metabolite of the antidepressant drug tranylcypromine. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 1986; 65:233-43. [PMID: 3711885 DOI: 10.1007/bf01249085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The formation of p-hydroxytranylcypromine from intraperitoneally injected tranylcypromine was confirmed using two types of experiments. In the first, tranylcypromine levels were shown to be increased in brains of rats pretreated with agents known to be inhibitors of ring hydroxylation compared to rats pretreated with physiological saline. For the second set of experiments, p-hydroxytranylcypromine was identified in brain and urine (following intraperitoneal injection) by derivatizing with perfluoroacylating reagents and analyzing by electron-capture gas chromatography and by combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. In experiments in vitro, p-hydroxytranylcypromine was demonstrated to inhibit monoamine oxidase, although it was weaker than TCP in this regard and was a much stronger inhibitor of MAO-A than of MAO-B.
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Burrows GH, Myers MM, Whittemore SR, Hendley ED. Calcium-sensitive accumulation of norepinephrine in rat cerebral cortex. Eur J Pharmacol 1981; 69:301-12. [PMID: 7215431 DOI: 10.1016/0014-2999(81)90476-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The accumulation of high and low concentrations of [3H]-norepinephrine has been examined in a crude synaptosomal preparation of rat cerebral cortex in the presence and absence of uptake1 inhibitors. When uptake1 was blocked, [3H]-norepinephrine accumulation exhibited very rapid initial rates. It was not inhibited by 10 mM normetanephrine, a potent inhibitor of peripheral uptake2, but it was inhibited by 10 mM metaraminol. This accumulation was markedly reduced when calcium ions were omitted from the incubation medium, and is named here 'calcium-sensitive accumulation' (CSA) to distinguish it functionally from the sodium-dependent, high affinity, uptake1 process. CSA may be localized in nerve endings since it was found predominantly i the synaptosomal fraction of homogenates subjected to density gradient centrifugation in sucrose or in Ficoll-in-sucrose. At high concentrations of [3H]l-norepinephrine (1.0 microM) and short incubation times, CSA accounted for most of the total accumulation of [3H]l-norepinephrine whereas uptake1 contributed only a small portion. Since extracellular concentrations of brain norepinephrine are thought to reach levels in excess of 1.0 microM, CSA may be a significant factor in noradrenergic neuronal transmission.
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Colpaert FC, Niemegeers CJ, Janssen PA. Discriminative stimulus properties of cocaine: neuropharmacological characteristics as derived from stimulus generalization experiments. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1979; 10:535-46. [PMID: 37526 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(79)90229-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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