Role of prolactin on neural and glial cellular enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism. I. Studies on immature male bonnet monkeys

Potential mechanisms behind the antioxidant actions of prolactin in the retina

Causes for age-related retinal diseases are numerous and complex, and they are intertwined with the natural vision decline that accompanies aging. The elucidation of endogenous mechanisms that help maintain retinal function under conditions that are threatening for the eye and happen during natural aging is therefore critical in developing new prevention and therapeutic strategies against age-related retinal degeneration. Our lab recently reported that the hormone of lactation, prolactin, helps the retinal pigment epithelium to survive via antioxidant actions that result in the inhibition of sirtuin2-dependent cell death (EbioMedicine issue of May). The mechanism behind the antioxidant activity of prolactin remains elusive. The main purposes of my commentary are to discuss mechanisms that could explain this effect in the context of previously identified defense mechanisms against oxidative stress and focus particularly on the potential regulation of reduced glutathione levels by prolactin. I also briefly comment on how our study contributes to cell biology, which as the foundational science for understanding neurodegeneration, may accelerate progress in disease prevention and cures.

Prolactin inhibits activity of pyruvate kinase M2 to stimulate cell proliferation

Mitogenic and prosurvival effects underlie the tumorigenic roles of prolactin (PRL) in the pathogenesis of breast cancer. PRL signaling is mediated through its receptor (PRLr). A proteomics screen identified the pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2), a glycolytic enzyme known to play an important role in tumorigenesis, as a protein that constitutively interacts with PRLr. Treatment of cells with PRL inhibited pyruvate kinase activity and increased the lactate content in human cells in a manner that was dependent on the abundance of PRLr, activation of Janus kinase 2, and tyrosine phosphorylation of the intracellular domain of PRLr. Knockdown of PKM2 attenuated PRL-stimulated cell proliferation. The extent of this proliferation was rescued by the knock-in of the wild-type PKM2 but not of its mutant insensitive to PRL-mediated inhibition. We discuss a hypothesis that the inhibition of PKM2 by PRL contributes to the PRL-stimulated cell proliferation.

Detection of prolactin receptor mRNA in the corpus striatum and substantia nigra of the rat

The observation of prolactin modulation of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system suggests the expression of prolactin receptor in the corpus striatum or substantia nigra. The present study investigated expression of prolactin receptor mRNA in tissues microdissected from the corpus striatum and substantia nigra of the rat. By using reverse transcription PCR combined with Southern hybridization, the long form of prolactin receptor mRNA was detected in the substantia nigra, caudate putamen, globus pallidus, and ventral pallidum in ovariectomized rats, whereas the short form was not detectable in any of these areas. Estrogen had no effect on expression of the long-form mRNA in the substantia nigra and corpus striatum. By using the RNase protection assay, the expression of both short and long forms of prolactin receptor mRNA was observed in the corpus striatum in ovariectomized rats. Again, levels of expression were not significantly altered by estrogen treatment. Both forms of prolactin receptor mRNA were clearly expressed in the choroid plexus and were up-regulated by estrogen treatment. The expression of both forms of prolactin receptor mRNA in nigrostriatal areas may help to support the hypothesis that prolactin has direct actions on these brain regions.

Prolactin (PRL) and its receptor: actions, signal transduction pathways and phenotypes observed in PRL receptor knockout mice

PRL is an anterior pituitary hormone that, along with GH and PLs, forms a family of hormones that probably resulted from the duplication of an ancestral gene. The PRLR is also a member of a larger family, known as the cytokine class-1 receptor superfamily, which currently has more than 20 different members. PRLRs or binding sites are widely distributed throughout the body. In fact, it is difficult to find a tissue that does not express any PRLR mRNA or protein. In agreement with this wide distribution of receptors is the fact that now more than 300 separate actions of PRL have been reported in various vertebrates, including effects on water and salt balance, growth and development, endocrinology and metabolism, brain and behavior, reproduction, and immune regulation and protection. Clearly, a large proportion of these actions are directly or indirectly associated with the process of reproduction, including many behavioral effects. PRL is also becoming well known as an important regulator of immune function. A number of disease states, including the growth of different forms of cancer as well as various autoimmune diseases, appear to be related to an overproduction of PRL, which may act in an endocrine, autocrine, or paracrine manner, or via an increased sensitivity to the hormone. The first step in the mechanism of action of PRL is the binding to a cell surface receptor. The ligand binds in a two-step process in which site 1 on PRL binds to one receptor molecule, after which a second receptor molecule binds to site 2 on the hormone, forming a homodimer consisting of one molecule of PRL and two molecules of receptor. The PRLR contains no intrinsic tyrosine kinase cytoplasmic domain but associates with a cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase, JAK2. Dimerization of the receptor induces tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of the JAK kinase followed by phosphorylation of the receptor. Other receptor-associated kinases of the Src family have also been shown to be activated by PRL. One major pathway of signaling involves phosphorylation of cytoplasmic State proteins, which themselves dimerize and translocate to nucleus and bind to specific promoter elements on PRL-responsive genes. In addition, the Ras/Raf/MAP kinase pathway is also activated by PRL and may be involved in the proliferative effects of the hormone. Finally, a number of other potential mediators have been identified, including IRS-1, PI-3 kinase, SHP-2, PLC gamma, PKC, and intracellular Ca2+. The technique of gene targeting in mice has been used to develop the first experimental model in which the effect of the complete absence of any lactogen or PRL-mediated effects can be studied. Heterozygous (+/-) females show almost complete failure to lactate after the first, but not subsequent, pregnancies. Homozygous (-/-) females are infertile due to multiple reproductive abnormalities, including ovulation of premeiotic oocytes, reduced fertilization of oocytes, reduced preimplantation oocyte development, lack of embryo implantation, and the absence of pseudopregnancy. Twenty per cent of the homozygous males showed delayed fertility. Other phenotypes, including effects on the immune system and bone, are currently being examined. It is clear that there are multiple actions associated with PRL. It will be important to correlate known effects with local production of PRL to differentiate classic endocrine from autocrine/paracrine effects. The fact that extrapituitary PRL can, under some circumstances, compensate for pituitary PRL raises the interesting possibility that there may be effects of PRL other than those originally observed in hypophysectomized rats. The PRLR knockout mouse model should be an interesting system by which to look for effects activated only by PRL or other lactogenic hormones. On the other hand, many of the effects reported in this review may be shared with other hormones, cytokines, or growth factors and thus will be more difficult to study. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)

Sleep in rats rendered chronically hyperprolactinemic with anterior pituitary grafts

A hyperprolactinemic rat model [rats bearing anterior pituitary grafts under the capsule of the kidney (AP-grafted rats)] was used to study sleep-wake activity and cortical brain temperature (T(crt)). Fisher 344 male rats (n = 24) were implanted with anterior pituitaries from rat pups; the control rats (n = 12) were sham-operated. Sleep-wake activity and T(crt) were recorded for 2 days between weeks 3 and 7 after surgery. The hyperprolactinemic state of the rats was confirmed by plasma prolactin (PRL) assays on week 7 and by determination of PRL mRNA levels in the anterior pituitary of the AP-grafted rats. Neither growth hormone plasma concentration nor pituitary mRNA levels were affected by the pituitary grafts. Duration of non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREMS) was slightly enhanced in the AP-grafted rats. A large increase in rapid eye movement sleep (REMS) during the 12-h light period was the major effect of the implantation of the extra pituitaries. Both the duration and the frequency of the REMS episodes increased and persisted for weeks 4-7 post-implantation. The nocturnal states of vigilance, T(crt), and intensity of NREMS (EEG slow wave activity) were not altered. The results clearly indicate that the enhancements in REMS persist during hyperprolactinemia, and support the hypothesis that PRL possesses REMS-promoting activity.

[14C]2-deoxyglucose uptake in the brain of the ring dove (Streptopelia risoria). I. Prolactin-induced uptake

Quantitative [14C]2-deoxyglucose (2DG) autoradiography was used to identify areas of the ring dove brain involved in the expression of incubation behavior. Compared with non-breeding controls, 2DG uptake was increased in birds of both sexes during late incubation in all areas of the fore, mid- and hind-brain examined. This increase occurred irrespective of whether the birds were sitting on their eggs at the time of 2DG administration. A similar pattern of 2DG uptake into the brain was observed in non-breeding females treated with 30 I.U. ovine prolactin (i.p.) twice daily for 5 days. It is concluded that there is a generalised increase in neural activity in the brain of doves during late incubation which may be dependent on increased concentrations of plasma prolactin.

Behavioural actions of prolactin locally applied into the hippocampus of adult female rats

The probable behavioural effects of rat prolactin (rPRL) locally applied into the ventral hippocampus (HPC) were studied in cycling female rats. Three experiments were performed examining the behavioural responses of rats subjected to three different situations: (i) Exploratory activity in an enriched holeboard (ii) exploratory activity under conflicting situation and (iii) escape behaviours in a forced swimming test. Behavioural parameters studied were: underground and object-directed exploration and locomotion (Experiment 1); latency time and exploration behaviours (Experiment 2); swimming time and escape behaviours (Experiment 3). In Experiment 1 results showed that rPRL decreased the underground exploration and also locomotion but increased the object-directed exploration and had no effect on non-ambulatory activity. In Experiment 2 results showed that treatment of rPRL increased the latency time but did not modify the exploratory activity. In Experiment 3 results showed that rPRL augmented the swimming time and one of two parameters (frequency of immersions intents) of the escape behaviour. Results are interpreted as local actions of PRL on hippocampal neuron affecting expression of behaviours of rats depending on the stressful conditions of the environment.