Structure of intestinal-mucus glycoprotein from human post-mortem or surgical tissue: inferences from correlation analyses of sugar and sulfate composition of individual mucins

Trends in liposomal nanocarrier strategies for the oral delivery of biologics

The number of approved macromolecular drugs such as peptides, proteins and antibodies steadily increases. Since drugs with high molecular weight are commonly not suitable for oral delivery, research on carrier strategies enabling oral administration is of vital interest. In past decades, nanocarriers, in particular liposomes, have been exhaustively investigated as oral drug-delivery platform. Despite their successful application as parenteral delivery vehicles, liposomes have up to date not succeeded for oral administration. However, a plenitude of approaches aiming to increase the oral bioavailability of macromolecular drugs administered by liposomal formulations has been published. Here, we summarize the strategies published in the last 10 years (vaccine strategies excluded) with a main focus on strategies proven efficient in animal models.

Sulfomucins in the human body

Mucins are widely distributed in mucous secretion fluids or are associated with plasma membranes. Up to now 9 genes of epithelial mucins have been identified, distributed over five chromosomes. Superposed on the genetic diversity, each type of mucin displays heterogeneity in oligosaccharide composition, including the terminal sugar residues. On top of that there is variation between individuals brought about by blood group antigens. Heterogeneity is further incited by the degree of sulfation. This tremendous structural heterogeneity endows mucin molecules with properties suggestive for a multifunctional role. The major biological function assigned to mucins is still the protection of tissues covered by the mucous gel. Current knowledge on the specific biological functions of the sulfate residues is fragmentary and periphrastic. Glycosylation including sulfation appears to be subject to modification under pathological conditions. There is evidence that sulfation rate-limits bacterial degradation of mucins. Moreover, accumulating data focus towards their involvement in recognition phenomena. Sulfate residues on blood group related structures provoke specific epitopes for selective interaction with microorganisms e.g. Helicobacter pylori. A distinct class of mucins acts as ligands for selectins, crucial in cellular recognition processes like cellular homing of lymphocytes. Whereas in earlier days mucins were only seen as water-binding molecules, protecting the underlying mucosa against harmful agents, the current picture of these molecules is characterized by the selective interaction with their environment, including epithelial-, and endothelial cells and microorganisms, thereby regulating a great number of biological processes. However, the specific role of sulfate remains to be further elucidated.

Binding of nonmucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa to normal human intestinal mucin and respiratory mucin from patients with cystic fibrosis

Lung infections due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Pseudomonas cepacia are common in patients with cystic fibrosis. Initial colonization is due to nonmucoid P. aeruginosa, while later mucoid variants emerge and are associated with chronic infection. P. cepacia colonization tends to be more prevalent in older patients. The present study was conducted to discover whether highly purified mucins (from cystic fibrosis sputum and control intestinal secretions) exhibited specific binding of nonmucoid P. aeruginosa. In vitro solid phase microtiter binding assays (with or without a blocking agent) as well as solution phase assays were conducted. Bacteria bound to both mucins via bacterial pili, but no differences in binding capacity were noted between the mucins. Unlike P. cepacia (described in the accompanying manuscript) there was also no preferential binding of P. aeruginosa to mucins versus bovine serum albumin, casein, gelatin, or a host of structurally unrelated proteins and glycoproteins. Carbohydrate hapten inhibition studies did not suggest the existence of specific mucin carbohydrate receptors for P. aeruginosa. In solid phase assays a low concentration (0.05 M) of tetramethylurea abolished P. aeruginosa bacterial binding to both mucins as well as to BSA, whereas in solution phase assays mucin binding to bacteria was not completely disrupted by tetramethylurea. Specific monoclonal antipilus antibodies did not inhibit binding to a greater extent than did Fab fragments of normal mouse IgG. Binding of strains PAO1 and PAK (and isolated PAK pili) to buccal epithelial cells was not influenced by the presence of mucin in binding assay mixtures. Our findings do not support the widely held notion that specific mucin receptors are responsible for the attachment of P. aeruginosa pili, nor do they support the idea that there is a competitive interference by mucins of bacterial binding to respiratory cells. In patients with cystic fibrosis, it would seem unlikely therefore that initial colonization of the lungs by P. aeruginosa is due to a 'selective tropism' of these bacteria for respiratory mucin.

Effect of reserpine on the histochemical and biochemical properties of rat intestinal mucin

Biochemical and histochemical parameters of intestinal mucins were examined in control and reserpine-treated rats. An assay for intestinal mucin sulfotransferase was developed and the activity shown to increase 3.4 times over control levels in rats given intraperitonal reserpine (0.5 mg/kg body wt) daily for 7 days. Histochemical staining of intestinal sections revealed an increase in sulfomucins in goblet cells of reserpine-treated rats. The effects were prominent as early as 1 day following injection, particularly in the distal third of the small intestine, and during the next 6 days these changes spread progressively to the middle and proximal thirds. After 3 days of treatment mucins were purified from each intestinal segment and compared to control mucins with respect to composition and [35S]NaSO4 incorporation. Although individual amino acid and carbohydrate molar ratios were unchanged, the total carbohydrate and sulfate content of mucins in treated animals was elevated (two to three times above control) in the middle and distal thirds of the intestine. In vivo [35S]SO4 incorporation into these mucins was also proportionaltely elevated, and was targetted to O-linked oligosaccharide side chains. These findings are consistent with an action of reserpine causing an increased production of mucin which is enriched in glycoprotein components bearing sulfated oligosaccharide chains. The relevance of these findings to the production of hypersulfated and hyperglycosylated mucins in cystic fibrosis is discussed.

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for ileal human goblet cell mucin

A sandwich ELISA for measuring ileal human goblet cell mucin has been developed with a linear response range 0.2 to 1.5 ng mucin protein. It can be used to quantitate the mucin present in dilute and unpurified samples without interference from other glycoproteins and proteins. Reduction of the mucin decreased the reactivity by only 14% indicating that the assay reacts almost as well with mucin glycopeptides as with native mucin. The assay has the advantages over previously described immunoassays for mucin of giving a result in 6 h, detecting slightly lower concentrations of mucin, and is more sensitive, quantitative and specific than the traditional protein or periodic acid-Schiff assays used for glycoproteins.

Some aspects of the glycoprotein and glycopolypeptide content of human gastric mucus

The carbohydrate content of non-diffusable, glycoprotein and glycopolypeptide material has been studied in normal human gastric aspirates. Pentagastrin doubles the volume of secretions but has no effect on the amount of non-diffusable material. Only about 40% of the weight of the non-diffusable material is mucin in nature. Gel-permeation chromatography indicated that about half of the mucin survived as high molecular mass glycoprotein. Monosaccharide differences, for example between secretors and non-secretors, only became manifest at the glycopolypeptide stage. These results emphasize the dangers of attempting to assess mucin changes by simple carbohydrate analyses of unfractionated gastric aspirates.

Interactions of Giardia lamblia with human intestinal mucus: enhancement of trophozoite attachment to glass

Giardia lamblia trophozoites frequently are associated with mucus in vivo. We investigated the effects of human intestinal mucus on parasite attachment and survival in vitro. All samples of mucus from the duodenum and ileum (from four humans and two rabbits) enhanced attachment at 100 micrograms/ml. Attachment increased with mucus concentrations from 1 to 1000 micrograms/ml but declined toward the unstimulated level at concentrations above 1000 micrograms/ml. Mucus from the small intestine also promoted the survival of the parasites during the 2-h incubation. In contrast, colonic mucus promoted survival, but inhibited attachment. Fractionation of mucus from the human small intestine by cesium chloride equilibrium density gradient ultracentrifugation revealed that both attachment- and survival-promoting activities were in the low density, protein-rich fraction. The high density fractions containing the mucins were devoid of activity. Thus, a non-mucin fraction of mucus from the human small intestine may promote colonization by G. lamblia.