Structural characterization of an anti-complementary pectic polysaccharide from the roots of Bupleurum falcatum L

Extraction, purification, structure characteristics, biological activities and pharmaceutical application of Bupleuri Radix Polysaccharide: A review

Bupleuri Radix (BR), as a well-known plant medicine of relieving exterior syndrome, has a long history of usage in China. Bupleuri Radix Polysaccharide (BRP), as the main component and an important bioactive substance of BR, has a variety of pharmacological activities, including immunoregulation, antioxidant, antitumor, anti-diabetic and anti-aging, etc. In this review, the advancements on extraction, purification, structure characteristics, biological activities and pharmaceutical application of BRP from different sources (Bupleurum chinense DC., Bupleurum scorzonerifolium Willd., Bupleurum falcatum L. and Bupleurum smithii Woiff. var. Parvifolium Shan et Y. Li.) are summarized. Meanwhile, this review makes an in-depth discussion on the shortcomings of the research on BRP, and new valuable insights for the future researches of BRP are proposed.

Protective effects of a traditional herbal extract from Stellaria dichotoma var. lanceolata against Mycobacterium abscessus infections

Stellaria dichotoma var. lanceolata (SdLv), a member of the Caryophyllaceae, is a traditional herbal medicine that has been used to treat fever, night sweats, and malaria in East Asia. Inflammation plays an essential role in both host defense and pathogenesis during infection by diverse intracellular pathogens. Herein, we showed that an herbal extract from SdLv effectively attenuated inflammatory responses from infection of Mycobacterium abscessus (Mab), but not Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii). In primary murine macrophages, Mab infection resulted in the rapid activation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), as well as in the generation of proinflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin-6, which were all significantly inhibited by pretreatment with SdLv. However, herbal extracts from Bupleurum chinense DC. (Buch) or Bupleurum falcatum L. (Bufa) did not affect M. abs-induced activation of proinflammatory responses. Importantly, we demonstrated that generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species, which are important signaling intermediaries in the activation of NF-κB and the MAPK signaling pathway, was rapidly increased in Mab-infected macrophages, and this was effectively suppressed by pretreatment with SdLv, but not Buch and Bufa. We further found that the treatment of Buch and Bufa, but not SdLv, led to the activation of NF-κB and the MAPK signaling pathway and the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species. Moreover, oral administration of SdLv significantly reduced lethality in Mab-infected mice. Collectively, these results suggest the possible use of SdLv as an effective treatment for Mab infection.

Advances on Bioactive Polysaccharides from Medicinal Plants

In recent decades, the polysaccharides from the medicinal plants have attracted a lot of attention due to their significant bioactivities, such as anti-tumor activity, antioxidant activity, anticoagulant activity, antidiabetic activity, radioprotection effect, anti-viral activity, hypolipidemic and immunomodulatory activities, which make them suitable for medicinal applications. Previous studies have also shown that medicinal plant polysaccharides are non-toxic and show no side effects. Based on these encouraging observations, most researches have been focusing on the isolation and identification of polysaccharides, as well as their bioactivities. A large number of bioactive polysaccharides with different structural features and biological effects from medicinal plants have been purified and characterized. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the most recent developments in physiochemical, structural features and biological activities of bioactive polysaccharides from a number of important medicinal plants, such as polysaccharides from Astragalus membranaceus, Dendrobium plants, Bupleurum, Cactus fruits, Acanthopanax senticosus, Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels, Aloe barbadensis Miller, and Dimocarpus longan Lour. Moreover, the paper has also been focused on the applications of bioactive polysaccharides for medicinal applications. Recent studies have provided evidence that polysaccharides from medicinal plants can play a vital role in bioactivities. The contents and data will serve as a useful reference material for further investigation, production, and application of these polysaccharides in functional foods and therapeutic agents.

Bioactivities, isolation and purification methods of polysaccharides from natural products: A review

Polysaccharides play multiple roles and have extensive bioactivities in life process and an immense potential in healthcare, food and cosmetic industries, due to their therapeutic effects and relatively low toxicity. This review describes their major functions involved in antitumor, anti-virus, and anti-inflammatory bioactivities. Due to their enormous structural heterogeneity, the approaches for isolation and purification of polysaccharides are distinct from that of the other macromolecules such as proteins, etc. Yet, to achieve the homogeneity is the initial step for studies of polysaccharide structure, pharmacology, and its structure-activity relationships. According to the experiences accumulated by our lab and the published literatures, this review also introduces the methods widely used in isolation and purification of polysaccharides.

Plant Extract (Bupleurum falcatum) as a Green Factory for Biofabrication of Gold Nanoparticles

This work describes a biofabrication process for gold nanoparticles in which the plant extract ( Bupleurum falcatum) is used as a reducing agent to convert gold ions to gold nanoparticles. Biofabricated gold nanoparticles with spherical shapes were observed with an average diameter of 10.5 ± 2.3 nm. The color of the gold nanoparticles was purple, with a surface plasmon resonance peak at 542 nm. The face-centered cubic structure of crystalline gold was confirmed by high-resolution X-ray diffraction patterns. The biofabricated gold nanoparticles demonstrated excellent catalytic activity towards the 4-nitrophenol reduction reaction. The current report suggests that plant extracts are valuable natural sources for the biofabrication of gold nanoparticles with excellent catalytic activities.

Herbal Remedy: An Alternate Therapy of Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug Induced Gastric Ulcer Healing

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are one of the most commonly used therapeutic drug groups used worldwide for curing an array of health problems like pain, inflammation, cardiovascular complications, and many other diseases, but they may cause different side effects including gastroduodenal disorders. So, there is a growing interest and need to search for nontoxic, antiulcer formulations from medicinal plants to treat NSAIDs induced gastric ulcer. Extensive research has reported on many natural plants like Camellia sinensis, Phyllanthus emblica, Myristica malabarica, Piper betle, Picrorhiza kurroa, and so forth, and their active constituents reduced NSAIDs induced gastric ulcer via their antioxidative as well as immunomodulatory activity. Therefore, use of herbal formulations in daily life may prevent NSAIDs induced gastric ulceration and other side effects.

Isolation of an anti-complementary polysaccharide from the root of Bupleurum chinense and identification of its targets in complement activation cascade

AIM

To isolate and characterize the anti-complementary polysaccharide from the root of Bupleurum chinense.

METHODS

Bioactivity-guided fractionation and purification was used to obtain the anti-complementary polysaccharide from the hot-water extract of the root of Bupleurum chinense. The polysaccharide was characterized by various chemical and spectral analyses. The anti-complementary activities were evaluated by hemolytic assay in vitro. The action targets were identified in the system with individual complement-depleted sera.

RESULTS

A homogeneous polysaccharide BC-PS2 was isolated as an anti-complementary agent. It was identified as a branched polysaccharide with an average molecular weight about 2 000 KDa, composed of Glc, Ara, Gal, and Man in the ratio 3.5 : 2.4 : 2.0 : 1.0, respectively, along with a trace of Rha and Xyl, and only 1.11% of protein. The main linkages of the residues of BC-PS2 include terminal, 1, 6-linked, 1, 3-linked and 1, 3, 6-linked Glcp, terminal and 1, 5-linked Araf, terminal, 1, 4-linked, 1, 6-linked and 1, 4, 6-linked Galp, terminal, and, 1, 4-linked and 1, 4, 6-linked Manp. The bioassay experiments revealed that BC-PS2 inhibited complement activation on both the classical and alternative pathways, with CH50 and AP50 of (0.222 ± 0.013) and (0.356 ± 0.032) mg·mL(-1), respectively. Preliminary mechanism studies indicated that BC-PS2 interacted with C1q, C2, and C9 components.

CONCLUSION

The results demonstrated that BC-PS2 is an anti-complementary polysaccharide, and should be important constituent of the root of Bupleurum chinense for its application in the treatment of diseases associated with the excessive activation of complement system.

Traditional Use, Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Quality Control of Species in Genus Bupleurum L

Many species of genus Bupleurum L. have been pharmaceutically used mainly in Asia and Europe for thousand years. Their roots are the most popular ingredients in Chinese materia medica prescriptions for the treatment of inflammatory diseases and auto-immune diseases. A plenty of chemical constituents have been isolated and identified from the species in Bupleurum L., such as saikosaponins, polysaccharides, volatile oils, flavonoids, polyacetylenes, lignins, and coumarins, most of which possess a variety of biological activities, especially for the hepatoprotective effect, antitumor activity, immunoregulation, and febrifuge efficacy. Therefore, the species in genus Bupleurum L. could be potential herbs of immunomodulator, antineoplastic, anti-oxidant, etc. Meanwhile, as potential toxicities have been discovered in some constituents, it is urgent to establish a comprehensive quality evaluation system to ensure the safety and efficiency of herbs. This paper reviews on the phytochemical and pharmacological studies, especially for the toxicology and quality control of the species in Bupleurum L., which is a reference for the species in this genus for safe usage and further development.

Complement activation and inhibition in wound healing

Complement activation is needed to restore tissue injury; however, inappropriate activation of complement, as seen in chronic wounds can cause cell death and enhance inflammation, thus contributing to further injury and impaired wound healing. Therefore, attenuation of complement activation by specific inhibitors is considered as an innovative wound care strategy. Currently, the effects of several complement inhibitors, for example, the C3 inhibitor compstatin and several C1 and C5 inhibitors, are under investigation in patients with complement-mediated diseases. Although (pre)clinical research into the effects of these complement inhibitors on wound healing is limited, available data indicate that reduction of complement activation can improve wound healing. Moreover, medicine may take advantage of safe and effective agents that are produced by various microorganisms, symbionts, for example, medicinal maggots, and plants to attenuate complement activation. To conclude, for the development of new wound care strategies, (pre)clinical studies into the roles of complement and the effects of application of complement inhibitors in wound healing are required.

Anticomplementary activity of ergosterol peroxide fromNaematoloma fasciculare and reassignment of NMR data

A very high content (at least 0.23%) of ergosterol peroxide was isolated fromNaematoloma fasciculare Karst. Not only ergosterol peroxide but also ergosterol showed very strong anticomplementary activity on the classical pathway, the IC(50) values being 5.0 muM and 1.0 muM, respectively. The(1)H and(13)C NMR data of ergosterol peroxide were revised and completely assigned by DEPT,(1)H-(1)H COSY, HMQC and HMBC correlations.

Bupleurum chinense DC polysaccharides attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in mice

Bupleurum chinense DC had hepato-protective, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic, and immunomodulatory effect in traditional Chinese medicine. This study was to determine whether the crude polysaccharides isolated from the roots of Bupleurum chinense DC (BCPs) attenuated lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury in mice. Mice were challenged with LPS intratracheally 2h before BCPs (20, 40 and 80 mg/kg) administration. The bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was collected 24h after LPS challenge. Treatment with BCPs reduced lung wet-to-dry weight ratio. The elevated number of total cells and protein concentration in BALF was reduced. The increased level of myeloperoxidase (MPO), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in BALF, and serum nitric oxide (NO) were also inhibited. BCPs significantly attenuated lung injury with improved lung morphology and reduced complement deposition. These results suggested that the effect of BCPs against ALI might be related with its inhibitory effect on excessive activation of complement and on the production of proinflammatory mediators.

A pectic polysaccharide isolated from the roots of Bupleurum falcatum L. stimulates the tyrosine phosphorylation of lipid rafts of murine B cells

Bupleuran 2IIc, a pectic polysaccharide isolated from the roots of Bupleurum falcatum L., was previously characterized as a T cell-independent B cell mitogen. The endo-(1-->4)-alpha-D-polygalacturonase-resistant moiety of bupleuran 2IIc (bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1) was the active site for expression of the activity, and expression of the cyclin D2 gene by bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1 may be mediated via activation of Src family tyrosine kinase, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-K) and phospholipase C (PLC)-gamma followed by activation of protein kinase C (PKC) and calcium mobilization (Matsumoto et al., Int. Immunopharmacol., 5, 1373-1386 (2005)). Plasma membrane microdomains (lipid rafts) are enriched in signaling molecules and suggested to be involved in numerous cell functions, including membrane traffic and signaling. When B cells were stimulated with bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1, clustering of membrane lipid rafts was observed. To consider whether lipid rafts are implicated in bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1-mediated B cell proliferation, we analyzed the phosphorylation of tyrosine residues of proteins in lipid rafts. When murine B cells were stimulated with bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1, tyrosine phosphorylation of proteins in lipid rafts fraction was observed within 5 min. Tyrosine phosphorylation in lipid rafts fraction by bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1 was inhibited by the Src-family tyrosine kinase inhibitor, PP2. Together with previously published data, the results presented in this study suggest that activation of signaling molecules in lipid rafts by stimulation of bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1 contributes to B cell proliferation as the membrane-proximal signaling event.

Stimulatory effect of a pectic polysaccharide from a medicinal herb, the roots of Bupleurum falcatum L., on G-CSF secretion from intestinal epithelial cells

The inner surface of the intestinal tract possesses a large area of mucosal membranes, and the intestinal epithelial cells exist at the interface between an antigen-rich lumen and a lymphocyte-rich lamina propria. The crosstalk that occurs between these compartments serves to maintain intestinal homeostasis, and the cytokine network plays an important role in the crosstalk. In this study, the effect of a pectic polysaccharide, bupleuran 2IIc from Bupleurum falcatum L., on cytokine secretion of intestinal epithelial cells was investigated in vitro. When murine normal colonic epithelial cell line MCE301 cells were stimulated with bupleuran 2IIc, the contents of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) in the conditioned medium were significantly increased in dose- and time-dependent manners. The enhanced G-CSF gene transcription in MCE301 cells by the stimulation of bupleuran 2IIc was observed by RT-PCR. The enhanced G-CSF secretion by bupleuran 2IIc was also observed in C3H/HeJ mice derived primary cultured colonic epithelial cells. Bupleuran 2IIc was digested with endo-(1-->4)-alpha-D-polygalacturonase, and the resulting bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1 ("ramified" region) showed potent G-CSF secretion enhancing activity. The activity of bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1 disappeared after the removal of arabinosyl residues from bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1 by endo-(1-->5)-alpha-L-arabinanase digestion. These results suggest that the "ramified" region (bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1) is the active site for the G-CSF secretion enhancing activity of bupleuran 2IIc, and the arabinan moiety of bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1 plays an important role in expression of the activity.

Chemical characteristics and immuno-modulating activities of exo-biopolymers produced by Grifola frondosa during submerged fermentation process

The immuno-modulating activities and chemical characteristics of exo-biopolymer (EX-GF) produced by a submerged mycelial culture of Grifola frondosa were studied. The EX-GF was fractionated into EX-GF-Fr.I, II, and III by Sephadex G-100 gel chromatography. Anti-complementary activity of EX-GF-Fr.III was highest (71.1%) among them, and its activation system occurred through both classical and alternative pathways, where the classical pathway found to be major one. Lysosomal enzyme activity and nitric oxide production ability of macrophage were also found to be mediated by EX-GF-Fr.III. The molecular weight of the EX-GF-Fr.I, II, and III was estimated to be about 163, 40, and 2.8 kDa, respectively. Total sugar and protein contents of the three fractions were 80.3, 61.9 and 89.3%, and 17.3, 35.2, and 10.7%, respectively. The sugar and amino acid compositions of the EX-GF-Fr.I, II, and III were also analyzed in detail.

Purification and Partial Characterization of an Acidic Polysaccharide with Complement Fixing Ability from the Stems of Avicennia Marina

An acidic polysaccharide fraction that had high anticomplementary activity was isolated from the stems of Grey Mangrove in 0.15% yield. The final fractions was designated HAM-3-IIb-II. The polysaccharide fraction appeared to be homogenous by high performance size exclusion chromatography with an estimated molecular weight of 105 kDa. The isolated polysaccharide is more effective than polysaccharide K (PSK) in its anticomplementary activity at 58 microg/ml of PSK and 23 microg/ml of HAM-3-IIb-II that inhibit 50% of complement activity in the complement fixation assay. Structural studies indicated that HAM-3-IIb-II was rich in galacturonic acid along with arabinose, galactose and rhamnose, characterizing a pectin-type polysaccharide, which was also confirmed by FT-IR spectrum. The presence of rich neutral sugar side chains of arabinogalactans may have contributed to the expression of high activity. Traditionally, this mangrove plant is used for medicinal purposes and it appears to have some scientific applications.

Polysaccharide composition of the fruit juice of Morinda citrifolia (Noni)

An ethanol-insoluble, high molecular weight fraction was collected from the juice of Morinda citrifolia fruit grown in Viet Nam. The fraction is composed primarily of carbohydrate (67% (w/w)). The polysaccharide fraction consists predominantly of GalAp (53.6mol%), Araf (13.6mol%), Galp (17.9mol%) and Rhap (9.5mol%). Glycosyl linkage analysis suggests the polysaccharide fraction contains mostly the pectic polysaccharides, homogalacturonan (4-GalAp), rhamnogalacturonan I (4-GalAp, 2-Rhap, 2,4-Rhap), arabinan (5-Araf, 3,5-Araf, t-Araf), type I arabinogalactan (4-Galp, 3,4-Galp, t-Araf) and beta-glucosyl Yariv-binding type II arabinogalactan (3,6-Galp, t-Araf). Low levels of xyloglucan (4-Glcp, 4,6-Glcp, t-Xylp, t-Fucp), heteroxylan (4-Xylp) and heteromannan (4-Manp) are also present.

Structures and structure-activity relationships of three mitogenic and complement fixing pectic arabinogalactans from the malian antiulcer plants Cochlospermum tinctorium A. Rich and Vernonia kotschyana Sch. Bip. ex Walp

Structures of three pectic arabinogalactans, one from Vernonia kotschyana (Vk2a) and two from Cochlospermum tinctorium (Ct50A1 and Ct50A2), and their complement fixation and induction of B cell proliferation in vitro were compared. The polysaccharide Vk2a expressed potent biological activity in both assays compared with Ct50A1 and Ct50A2. Vk2a possessed a very high molecular weight (1150 +/- 20 kDa) compared with Ct50A1 and Ct50A2 which both showed a polydisperse nature with the highest molecular weight polymers in each fraction estimated at approximately 105 kDa (Ct1a) and 640 +/- 100 kDa (Ct2a), respectively. The HMW polymers showed complement fixation in the same range as the native fractions. The arabinogalactan II content was low in Vk2a (2%) compared with that in Ct50A1 (23%) and Ct50A2 (12%). The high molecular weight polymers were subjected to digestion with a beta-d-(1, 3)-galactanase-rich fraction from Driselase, oligomers were isolated by HPAEC, and their finer structures were determined by MALDI- and ES-qoToF-MS, linkage, and monosaccharide composition analyses. Vk2a consists of both a galacturonan core and a rhamnogalacturonan core rich in neutral side chains. The backbones of both Ct-polysaccharides consist mainly of RG-I regions with numerous neutral side chains dominated by galactosyl residues, whereas the homogalacturonan regions seem to be small. Differences in the chain lengths of the 6-linked galacto-oligosaccharides attached to the 3-linked galactan core could not be related to the differences in the potencies of the biological activities observed.

A possible signal transduction pathway for cyclin D2 expression by a pectic polysaccharide from the roots of Bupleurum falcatum L. in murine B cell

Bupleuran 2IIc, a pectic polysaccharide isolated from the roots of bupleurum falcatum L., was previously characterized as a T-cell-independent B cell mitogen. This study focuses on elucidating the mechanism by which bupleuran 2IIc induces cyclin D2 production for inducing mitogenesis in murine B cells. Bupleuran 2IIc was digested with endo-alpha-(1-->4)-D-polygalacturonase and the resulting bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1 ("ramified" region) strongly stimulated cyclin D2 expression. When murine B cells were stimulated with bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1, phosphorylation of tyrosine residues of a number of proteins was observed. Cyclin D2 expression by bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1 was inhibited by the tyrosine kinase inhibitors, genistein and herbimycin A, and the Src family tyrosine kinase inhibitor, PP2, suggesting a possible role for tyrosine kinases. The stimulation by bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1 of cyclin D2 expression was significantly decreased by inhibitors, PI 3-kinase (LY294002 and Wortmannin), PLCgamma (U73122), PKC (H-7), receptor-operated calcium entry inhibitor (SK&F 96365), and calcineurin (FK506). Both PD98059 and U0126, highly selective inhibitors of MEK1 and MEK1/2, respectively, did not strongly suppress the expression of cyclin D2 after stimulation by bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1. The results suggest that (1) bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1 is the active site for induction of cyclin D2 by bupleuran 2IIc, (2) the expression of the cyclin D2 gene by bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1 may be mediated via the activation of PI 3-kinase and PLCgamma followed by activation of PKC and calcium mobilization, and (3) the ERK1/2 cascade is not a central signaling pathway for bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1-induced cyclin D2 expression.

Structure-immunomodulating activity relationships of a pectic arabinogalactan from Vernonia kotschyana Sch. Bip. ex Walp

Structure and immunological characteristics of the pectic arabinogalactan Vk2a (previously reported as Vk100A2a) from the roots of Vernonia kotschyana Sch. Bip. ex Walp. were investigated after enzymatic digestion of the galacturonan moiety and the side chains of the rhamnogalacturonan structure of Vk2a. endo-alpha-D-(1-->4)-Polygalacturonase digestion released the high molecular weight 'hairy region' (Vk2a-HR) and oligogalacturonides. Vk2a-HR consisted of GalA (4-linked) and Rha (2- or 2,4-linked) in a 1:1 ratio, with 60% of Rha branched at C-4. The Rha located in the rhamnogalacturonan core was branched randomly by Gal units. Vk2a-HR was rich in neutral sugars such as Araf 5- (12.2%) and 3,5-substituted (12.8%) and terminally- (14.1%) linked and Gal 4- (13.0%), 3- (0.9%), 6- (2.2%) and 3,6- (1.1%) substituted. Arabinans with chain lengths up to 11 units were identified. Araf residues were attached to C-3 of alpha-L-(1-->5)-Araf chains and to C-4 of Gal residues. Single Gal units and chains of beta-D-(1-->6)-linked galacto di- to penta-saccharides were attached to a beta-D-(1-->3)-galactan core. All the enzyme resistant fractions expressed potent complement fixation and induction of B-cell mitogenic activity, and the present study indicates that there may be several and possibly structurally different active sites involved in the bioactivity of Vk2a. The bioactive sites may be located both in the more peripheral parts of the molecule but also in the inner core of the 'hairy region' or in larger enzyme-resistant chains.

Separation and isolation methods for analysis of the active principles of Sho-saiko-to (SST) oriental medicine

Sho-saiko-to (SST) was introduced into Japan as an oriental classical medicine from China approximately 1500 years ago, and it is currently the most representative Kampo medicine (traditional Japanese medicine). SST is manufactured in Japan as an ethical drug on a modern industrial scale in which the quality of ingredients is standardized with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) regulation. SST is widely used for the treatment of chronic hepatitis. Experimental and clinical studies including multi-center, placebo-controlled, double-blind studies have demonstrated the various pharmacological effects of SST. SST is prepared from the hot water extraction of seven raw materials, therefore many kinds of constituents are included. Three-dimensional (3D) HPLC analysis is useful for obtaining many kinds of constituents, especially low molecular ultraviolet (UV) quenching compounds, contained in SST as well as its fractions. Fingerprint pattern provided by 3D HPLC analysis makes possible to identify the overall-viewing of SST. Databases of UV spectra of the components of medicinal herbs obtained by reversed-phase (RP) HPLC using a photodiode array (PDA) and fingerprint patterns of crude drugs made by 3D HPLC analysis facilitate the identification, analysis and quality of herbal drugs. Studies using both PDA HPLC and an amino acid analysis with a fluorometric detector have found that SST contains fifteen major low molecular compounds (i.e. baicalin, wogonin-7-O-glucuronide, liquiritin, their three aglycons, liquiritin apioside, glycyrrhizin, saikosaponin b1, saikosaponin b2, ginsenoside Rg1, ginsenoside Rb1, (6)-gingerol, (6)-shogaol and arginine). These compounds have various pharmacological actions, and are assumed to be responsible, at least partly, for the pharmacological effects of SST. Although there have only been a few investigations on high molecular compounds with pharmacological actions contained in SST, several kinds of polysaccharides have been isolated from constituent herbs of SST. This review paper summarizes analytical methods of separation, isolation and identification of compounds with biological activities from SST, which is a mixture drug of medicinal herbs. Accordingly, this paper would not focus on methods of separation, isolation and analysis of particular compounds from each constituent herb of SST.

Medicinal use of Cochlospermum tinctorium in Mali Anti-ulcer-, radical scavenging- and immunomodulating activities of polymers in the aqueous extract of the roots

Cochlospermum tinctorium A. Rich. (Cochlospermaceae) is a widely used medicinal plant in the West African country, Mali. An ethnopharmacological survey was conducted and 106 traditional practitioners interviewed. The roots were the part of the plant reported to be the most frequently used for medicinal purposes. The main indications were to treat jaundice (41), gastro intestinal diseases or ailments (28), malaria (12), schistosomiasis (10) and dysurea (6). A high-molecular weight water extract (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg, body weight) significantly inhibited HCl/ethanol-induced gastric lesions in mice. The extract showed DPPH-radical scavenging- and immunomodulating activities in vitro. The main components of the extract were identified as polysaccharides (59.3%) and polyphenols (9.3%). The polysaccharides were purified and characterised as highly complex pectic arabinogalactans type II. As parts of the polyphenol compounds gallotannins and ferulic acids were identified. This study shows that the polysaccharides are partly responsible for the bioactivities observed in vitro. Both polysaccharides and polyphenols may be responsible for the anti-ulcer activities observed.

Structural and immunological studies of a pectin and a pectic arabinogalactan from Vernonia kotschyana Sch. Bip. ex Walp. (Asteraceae)

Two polysaccharides, a pectin (Vk100A2b) and a pectic arabinogalactan (Vk100A2a) with mean Mw 2 x 10(4) and 1.15 x 10(6)Da, respectively, were isolated from the dried powdered roots of Vernonia kotschyana Sch. Bip. ex Walp. by hot water extraction followed by fractionation on DEAE-Sepharose fast flow and Sephacryl S-400 HR. The pectin showed low-complement fixation activity and no influence on proliferation of B or T cells, while the pectic arabinogalactan showed a potent, dose-dependent complement fixation activity and a T cell independent induction of B-cell proliferation. Both polysaccharides induced chemotaxis of human macrophages, T cells and NK cells. exo-alpha-L-arabinofuranosidase and exo-beta-D-galactosidase digestion followed by component sugar and methylation analysis indicated that Vk100A2a consisted of a highly branched rhamnogalacturonan core with approximately 50% of the rhamnose 1,2,4-substituted, side chains rich in terminal-, 1,5-linked and 1,3,5-branched arabinose and terminal-, 1,4-, 1,6-linked and 1,3,6-branched galactose. The enzyme resistant part of Vk100A2a still showed strong complement fixating activity, suggesting that this activity may at least in part be expressed by carbohydrate structures present in the enzyme resistant, inner portion of the polymer.

Separation and isolation methods for analysis of the active principles of Sho-saiko-to (SST) oriental medicine

Sho-saiko-to (SST) was introduced into Japan as an oriental classical medicine from China approximately 1500 years ago, and it is currently the most representative Kampo medicine (traditional Japanese medicine). SST is manufactured in Japan as an ethical drug on a modern industrial scale in which the quality of ingredients is standardized with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) regulation. SST is widely used for the treatment of chronic hepatitis. Experimental and clinical studies including multi-center, placebo-controlled, double-blind studies have demonstrated the various pharmacological effects of SST. SST is prepared from the hot water extraction of seven raw materials, therefore many kinds of constituents are included. Three-dimensional (3D) HPLC analysis is useful for obtaining many kinds of constituents, especially low molecular ultraviolet (UV) quenching compounds, contained in SST as well as its fractions. Fingerprint pattern provided by 3D HPLC analysis makes possible to identify the overall-viewing of SST. Databases of UV spectra of the components of medicinal herbs obtained by reversed-phase (RP) HPLC using a photodiode array (PDA) and fingerprint patterns of crude drugs made by 3D HPLC analysis facilitate the identification, analysis and quality of herbal drugs. Studies using both PDA HPLC and an amino acid analysis with a fluorometric detector have found that SST contains fifteen major low molecular compounds (i.e. baicalin, wogonin-7-O-glucuronide, liquiritin, their three aglycons, liquiritin apioside, glycyrrhizin, saikosaponin b1, saikosaponin b2, ginsenoside Rg1, ginsenoside Rb1, (6)-gingerol, (6)-shogaol and arginine). These compounds have various pharmacological actions, and are assumed to be responsible, at least partly, for the pharmacological effects of SST. Although there have only been a few investigations on high molecular compounds with pharmacological actions contained in SST, several kinds of polysaccharides have been isolated from constituent herbs of SST. This review paper summarizes analytical methods of separation, isolation and identification of compounds with biological activities from SST, which is a mixture drug of medicinal herbs. Accordingly, this paper would not focus on methods of separation, isolation and analysis of particular compounds from each constituent herb of SST.

Induction of cell cycle regulatory proteins by murine B cell proliferating pectic polysaccharide from the roots of Bupleurum falcatum L

Bupleuran 2IIc, a pectic polysaccharide isolated from the roots of Bupleurum falcatum L., was characterized as a T-cell-independent B cell mitogen, that activates, proliferates and differentiates B cells in vivo and in vitro (Immunology 97 (1999) 540). Studies were focused on elucidating the mechanism by which bupleuran 2IIc causes proliferation of B cells and expression of cell cycle regulatory proteins. B cells showed slower rates of entry into the S and G2/M phases of the cell cycle when stimulated with bupleuran 2IIc versus anti-IgM. However, the Stimulation Index continued up to two times longer with bupleuran 2IIc over anti-IgM. Although both bupleuran 2IIc and anti-IgM induced similar expressions of cell cycle regulatory proteins, cyclins D2, A, and B1, in B cells, those cells stimulated with bupleuran 2IIc appeared to sustain expressions of these protein for longer periods of time. Stimulation of B cells with bupleuran 2IIc induced phosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein, pRB, an important gene product regulating the restriction point, R, which is responsible for the transition from the G0/G1 to the S phases of the cell cycle. The results of this study demonstrate that both bupleuran 2IIc and anti-IgM interact with B cells, thus, leading to expressions of cell cycle regulatory proteins. However, the respective modes of binding and proximity of interactions with the B cell membrane may differ.

Isolation, partial characterisation and immunomodulating activities of polysaccharides from Vernonia kotschyana Sch. Bip. ex Walp

The roots from Vernonia kotschyana Sch. Bip. ex Walp. (Baccharoides adoensis var. kotschyana (Sch. Bip. ex Walp.) M.A. Isawumi, G.El-Ghazaly & B. Nordenstam) (Asteraceae) are used in Malian folk medicine for the treatment of gastritis, gastro duodenal ulcers, as an aid to ameliorate digestion and as a wound healing remedy. Since a common feature among these conditions is related to immune responses, immunomodulating activities of fractions isolated from both the 50 degrees C and the 100 degrees C water extracts from Vernonia kotschyana were investigated in this study. The active principles were identified as acidic polysaccharide fractions, containing pectic arabinogalactan type II structures, which showed both complement fixing ability and T-cell independent induction of B-cell proliferation in vitro. Some activity was also observed on macrophages. The present study may provide additional support for the popular use of this plant to improve intestinal health.

Purification and characterization of complement-activating acidic polysaccharides from the fruits of Capsicum annuum

Hot water-soluble crude polysaccharide (HCAP-0) that was obtained from the fruits of Capsicum annuum showed potent anti-complementary activity. The activity was unchanged by pronase digestion, but decreased by periodate oxidation. The HCAP-0 was fractionated by DEAE ion-exchange chromatography to give two major fractions, HCAP-II and III. These two fractions were finally purified by gel filtration to give HCAP-IIa, HCAPIIIa1, and IIIa2 fractions that had high anti-complementary activities. The HCAP-IIIa1 and IIIa2 consisted of homogeneous polysaccharides. The anti-complementary activities were unaffected by treatment with polymyxin B, indicating that the modes of complement activation were not due to preexisting lipopolysaccharide. The molecular weight and sugar content of HCAP-IIIa2 had potent anti-complementary activity. The highest yields were 55 kDa and 75.9%, and the molar ratio of galactose (Ara:Gal, 1.0:4.6) was higher than other sugars. The crossed immuno-electrophoresis showed that both classical and alternative pathways were activated by HCAP-IIIa2.

The malian medicinal plant Trichilia emetica; studies on polysaccharides with complement fixing ability

Trichilia emetica is a tree or bush that has many different traditional uses in Mali, amongst others the leaves have been used as a woundhealing remedy. As polysaccharides have been isolated from other plants that have a long tradition as woundhealing remedies, it was of interest to study the polysaccharides of T. emetica as well. The polysaccharides were extracted at 50 and 100 degrees C, and the polymeric material was separated into neutral and acidic polymers by anion exchange chromatography. The complement fixation ability of the different fractions was determined. The Acidic fraction 4 of the 100 degrees C extract was the most active, but most of the other fractions were also quite active. Structural studies showed that the most active fraction was a pectin of the rhamnogalacturonan type 1 with side chains of the arabinogalactan type II. Removal of terminal arabinofuranosides lead to a drop of the activity indicating that this structural unit may be involved in the bioactive site of the molecule.

Biochemical properties of polysaccharides from black pepper

The purified polysaccharides from Piper nigrum were prepared as follows: a hot water extract of pepper seeds was fractionated by ultrafiltration with a 5-kDa-membrane cartridge. A fraction with 5 kDa or bigger molecules was successively purified by open column chromatography on DEAE-Toyopearl 650C and Bio-gel P-60 with each active fraction, resulting in PN-Ib and PN-IIa, purified anti-complementary polysaccharides. None of the anti-complementary activity of any polysaccharide was changed by pronase digestion or polymyxin B treatment, but they were decreased by periodate oxidation. Analysis of component sugar and molecular mass determination of the anti-complementary polysaccharides indicated that PN-Ib with an average molecular mass of 21 kDa contained 88.5% glucose and other negligible minor monosaccharides, while PN-IIa showed a different monosaccharide composition, which contained a significant proportion of galactose, arabinose, galacturonic acid and rhamnose. The molar ratio of galactose and arabinose of PN-IIa (48 kDa) was 1.93:1. PN-1 did not react with beta-glucosyl Yariv reagent, however, PN-IIa did react, which indicated that PN-IIa might be an arabinogalactan. Based upon these results, the usefulness of purified anti-complementary polysaccharides from Piper nigrum is suggested as a supplement for immune enhancement.

Effect of the antiulcer polysaccharide fraction from Bupleurum falcatum L. on the healing of gastric ulcer induced by acetic acid in rats

An antiulcer polysaccharide fraction (BR-2) from Bupleurum falcatum L. was examined for its effect on the healing of chronic ulcers induced by acetic acid in rats. When BR-2 was administered orally to the rats, it was shown to be effective in the healing of acetic acid-induced chronic ulcer. This result suggests that the use of herbal prescriptions containing B. falcatum L. may prove useful for the treatment of peptic ulcers.

Purification and biological activity of acidic polysaccharide from leaves of Thymus vulgaris L

Polysaccharides are involved in biological responses and can activate complement system, which plays an important role in primary host defense mechanisms. We investigated anticomplementary activities from spice plants and selected thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) as a potent complementary activator. Acidic polysaccharide (TV-3-IIIA-IIa) purified from the hot-water extract of thyme leaves by DEAE-Toyopearl 650C, Butyl-Toyopearl 650M and Sepharose CL-6B column chromatography and preparative HPLC. The purified polysaccharide, TV-3-IIIA-IIa showed potent anticomplementary activity via classical and alternative pathway with the increase proportional to dosage. TV-3-IIIA-IIa seemed to be a homogenous polymer from the results of HPLC and its molecular mass was estimated as 180 kDa. TV-3-IIIA-IIa mainly consisted of galacturonic acid (44.8 mol%), glucuronic acid (16.7 mol%), arabinose (11.1 mol%), rhamnose (9.2 mol%), galactose (8.9 mol%) and small amounts of glucose, xylose, mannose and fucose. By methylation analysis and reactivity to beta-glucosyl Yariv reagent, TV-3-IIIA-IIa was assumed to contain small amounts of type II arabinogalactan and large amounts of pectin-like polysaccharides in the structure. Based upon these results, TV-3-IIIA-IIa was suggested to be a complement activator.

Effects of a pectic polysaccharide from a medicinal herb, the roots of Bupleurum falcatum L. on interleukin 6 production of murine B cells and B cell lines

The effect of T-cell-independent B cell mitogen, a pectic polysaccharide, bupleuran 2IIc, from a medicinal herb, the roots of Bupleurum falcatum L. on interleukin 6 (IL-6) production of murine B cells and B cell lines was investigated in order to clarify the mechanism of enhanced immunoglobulin (Ig) secretion from B cells. Bupleuran 2IIc enhanced IgM secretion from highly purified murine normal B cells. When normal B cells from murine spleen were cultured with bupleuran 2IIc in the presence of anti-IL-6 neutralizing antibody, the enhanced IgM secretion by bupleuran 2IIc was reduced. When B cells were stimulated with bupleuran 2IIc, their IL-6 secretion and the transcription of IL-6 mRNA were enhanced. The enhanced IL-6 secretion by bupleuran 2IIc was also observed in B cell line, Y16 cell. When bupleuran 2IIc was digested with endo-alpha-(1-->4)-D-polygalacturonase, the resulting enzyme resistant carbohydrate portion, "ramified" region (PG-1) composed of rhamnogalacturonan core containing neutral sugar side chains showed potent IL-6 secretion-enhancing activity. These results suggest that the "ramified" region of bupleuran 2IIc stimulates the secretion of IL-6 as the active site, and the resulting IL-6 may partially contribute the enhancement of IgM secretion as an autocrine and/or paracrine mechanism.

B-cell proliferation activity of pectic polysaccharide from a medicinal herb, the roots of Bupleurum falcatum L. and its structural requirement

Pectic polysaccharide fraction (BR-2) containing pharmacologically active pectic polysaccharide, bupleuran 2IIc, which was prepared from a medicinal herb, the roots of Bupleurum falcatum L., was administered orally to C3H/HeJ mice for 7 consecutive days. Proliferative responses of spleen cells were enhanced in the presence of the purified pectic polysaccharide, bupleuran 2IIc, but another B-cell mitogen, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) did not give a similar effect. In vitro studies using spleen cells showed that bupleuran 2IIc also stimulated lymphocytes, depleted of adherent cells or T cells. Bupleuran 2IIc treatment increased subpopulation of CD25+ and surface immunoglobulin M-positive (sIgM+) lymphocytes. Non-specific immunoglobulin secretion of spleen cells treated with bupleuran 2IIc was increased according to the culture time, and coexistence of interleukin-6 (IL-6) enhanced the secretion more than that of bupleuran 2IIc alone. These results suggest that bupleuran 2IIc proliferates B cells in the absence of macrophages, and the resulting activated B cells are then induced into antibody-forming cells in the presence of IL-6. Among the structural region of bupleuran 2IIc, ramified region (PG-1), which consists of rhamnogalacturonan core rich in neutral sugar chain, showed the potent mitogenic activity suggesting it to be an active site. Mitogenic activity of bupleuran 2IIc was reduced in the presence of antipolysaccharide antibody (antibupleuran 2IIc/PG-1-IgG), which recognizes the ramified region of bupleuran 2IIc as the antigenic epitope. Mitogenic activity of bupleuran 2IIc was also reduced by the addition of beta-d-GlcpA-(1-->6)-beta-d-Galp-(1-->6)-d-Galp or beta-d-GlcpA-(1-->6)-d-Galp, which are a part of the epitopes of antibupleuran 2IIc/PG-1-IgG. These results suggest that the epitopes in bupleuran 2IIc act as active sites of the polysaccharide during mitogenic activity.

Neutral polysaccharide from Cedrela tubiflora with anticomplementary activity

A water-soluble polysaccharide extracted from leaves of the Meliaceae Cedrela tubiflora was separated into neutral and acidic polysaccharide fractions. The best anticomplementary activity was exhibited by the neutral product which was further purified by means of gelpermeation chromatography. The composition and methylation analysis of the purified product were determined.

Characterization of antigenic epitopes in anti-ulcer pectic polysaccharides from Bupleurum falcatum L. using several carbohydrases

A polyclonal antibody (anti-bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1-IgG) against the "ramified" region (PG-1) of an anti-ulcer pectic polysaccharide was prepared and its antigenic epitopes were analyzed by using several carbohydrases. Enzymatic removal of arabinosyl residues from PG-1 by endo-(1-->5)-alpha-L-arabinanase (from Aspergillus niger) did not reduce the binding ability of anti-bupleuran 2IIc/PG-1-IgG to PG-1. When the endo-(1-->5)-alpha-L-arabinanase-resistant fraction (EA-1) was digested with rhamnogalacturonase A (rRGase A from A. aculeatus), a high-molecular-mass fragment fraction (RA-1) and an oligosaccharide fraction (RA-3) were obtained. RA-3 contained at least four kinds of oligosaccharides liberated from the rhamnogalacturonan core. This partial removal of the rhamnogalacturonan core in EA-1 also did not reduce the binding of the antibody to the polysaccharide. Further digestion of RA-1 with exo-(1-->3)-beta-D-galactanase (from Irpex lacteus), gave a high-molecular-mass fragment (EXG-1) and a trace of oligosaccharides (EXG-3). Methylation and FABMS analyses indicated that EXG-3 contained mono- and di-galactosyl oligosaccharides possessing terminal GlcA or GlcA4Me. Removal of the EXG-3 fraction from RA-1 by exo-(1-->3)-beta-D-galactanase significantly reduced the ability of the binding of the antibody to the polysaccharide. When PG-1 was digested with endo-(1-->6)-beta-D-galactanase (from Trichoderma viride) or beta-D-glucuronidase (from A. niger), the reactivities of both enzyme-resistant fractions to the antibody were decreased in comparison with that of PG-1. Both radish arabinogalactan (containing GlcA4Me) and beta-D-GlcpA-(1-->6)-beta-D-Galp-(1-->6)-D-Galp were shown to inhibit the reactivity of PG-1 to the antibody by competitive ELISA. These results suggest that 6-linked galactosyl chains containing terminal GlcA or GlcA4Me attached to (1-->3)-beta-D-galactosyl chains, are important sugar residues in the antigenic epitopes of the "ramified" region of bupleuran 2IIc.