Persistent viral infection affects tumorigenicity of a neuroblastoma cell line

Oxidative Stress in Canine Histiocytic Sarcoma Cells Induced by an Infection with Canine Distemper Virus Led to a Dysregulation of HIF-1α Downstream Pathway Resulting in a Reduced Expression of VEGF-B in vitro

Histiocytic sarcomas represent malignant tumors which require new treatment strategies. Canine distemper virus (CDV) is a promising candidate due to its oncolytic features reported in a canine histiocytic sarcoma cell line (DH82 cells). Interestingly, the underlying mechanism might include a dysregulation of angiogenesis. Based on these findings, the aim of the present study was to investigate the impact of a persistent CDV-infection on oxidative stress mediated changes in the expression of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α and its angiogenic downstream pathway in DH82 cells in vitro. Microarray data analysis, immunofluorescence for 8-hydroxyguanosine, superoxide dismutase 2 and catalase, and flow cytometry for oxidative burst displayed an increased oxidative stress in persistently CDV-infected DH82 cells (DH82Ond pi) compared to controls. The HIF-1α expression in DH82Ond pi increased, as demonstrated by Western blot, and showed an unexpected, often sub-membranous distribution, as shown by immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy. Furthermore, microarray data analysis and immunofluorescence confirmed a reduced expression of VEGF-B in DH82Ond pi compared to controls. In summary, these results suggest a reduced activation of the HIF-1α angiogenic downstream pathway in DH82Ond pi cells in vitro, most likely due to an excessive, unusually localized, and non-functional expression of HIF-1α triggered by a CDV-induced increased oxidative stress.

The oncolytic effect in vivo of reovirus on tumour cells that have survived reovirus cell killing in vitro

The use of oncolytic viruses has received considerable attention in recent years and many viruses have proved to be effective against a variety of cancer models and a few are currently being used in clinical trials. However, the possible emergence and outcome of virus-resistant tumour cells has not been addressed. We previously reported the effective use of reovirus against lymphoid malignancies, including the Burkitt's lymphoma cell line Raji. Here we isolated in vitro persistently infected (PI) Raji cells, and cells ‘cured’ of persistent reovirus infection (‘cured’ cells). Both PI and cured Raji cells resisted reovirus infection and cell killing in vitro. In vivo, the PI cells were non-tumorigenic in SCID mice, but cured cells regained the parental cells' ability to form tumours. Tumour xenografts from the cured cells, however, were highly susceptible to reovirus oncolysis in vivo. This susceptibility was due to the proteolytic environment within tumours that facilitates reovirus infection and cell killing. Our results show that persistent infection by reovirus impedes tumour development and that although PI cells cleared of reovirus are tumorigenic, they are killed upon rechallenge with reovirus. Both the PI and cured states are therefore not likely to be significant barriers to reovirus oncolytic therapy.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1-mediated syncytium formation is compatible with adenovirus replication and facilitates efficient dispersion of viral gene products and de novo-synthesized virus particles

Conditionally replicative adenovirus (CRAd) vectors are designed for specific oncolytic replication in tumor tissues with concomitant sparing of normal cells. As such, CRAds offer an unprecedented level of anticancer potential for malignancies that have been refractory to previous cancer gene therapy interventions. CRAd efficacy may, however, be compromised by inefficient dispersion of the replicating vector within the tumor tissue. To address this issue, we evaluated the utility of a fusogenic membrane glycoprotein (FMG), which induces the fusion of neighboring cellular membranes to form multinucleated syncytia. We hypothesized that the FMG-mediated syncytia would facilitate dispersion of the adenovirus (Ad) gene products and viral progeny. To test this, human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope glycoproteins, which induce syncytia in the presence of CD4+ target cells, were expressed by an Ad (Ad5HIVenv) in permissive (CD4-positive) and nonpermissive (CD4-negative) cell lines. After validating this Ad-FMG model, the efficiency of Ad replication in the presence or absence of syncytia was evaluated. The results demonstrated that syncytium formation was compatible with Ad replication and dramatically increased the dispersion of virus gene products within the cytoplasm of the syncytia as well as viral particles in the nuclei of the syncytial mass. Moreover, progeny virions were released more efficiently from syncytia compared with nonsyncytial cells. These data demonstrate the utility of FMGs as a dispersion agent and suggest that FMGs can improve the efficacy of CRAd gene therapy.

Reovirus type 3 chemoimmunotherapy of murine lymphoma is abrogated by cyclosporine

We have previously shown that the combined modalities of reovirus type 3 and the chemotherapeutic agent 1,3-bis (2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea (BCNU) synergize to cause the rejection of various murine tumors. Resistance of surviving animals to challenge with homologous but not heterologous tumor suggested that tumor was eliminated through an immune-mediated mechanism. In this study, we showed that mice undergoing therapy-mediated rejection of tumor were able to reject subsequent weekly challenges with EL-4 but not L1210 tumor cells. The mechanism underlying this therapy was investigated using cyclosporine (CS) to suppress immune responsiveness. A dose-related inhibition of therapy was observed with total inhibition occurring at 30 mg/kg/day. Delayed administration of CS at day 14 or later after tumor administration resulted in little or no inhibitory effect. The resistance of cured mice to EL-4 tumor challenge was not affected by CS, which is consistent with the reduced ability of CS to affect secondary immune responses. In addition, CS did not alter natural killer cell activity in mice receiving the BCNU/reovirus therapy. These results suggest that there is an obligatory immune response produced by the BCNU/reovirus therapy which arises early after the administration of the therapy.

Decreased tumorigenicity correlates with expression of altered cell surface carbohydrates in Lec9 CHO cells

To investigate a role for surface carbohydrates in cellular malignancy, 15 different glycosylation-defective CHO cell mutants were examined for their tumorigenic and metastatic capacities after subcutaneous injection into nude mice. Most of the glycosylation mutants displayed similar or slightly decreased tumorigenicity compared with parental CHO cells. Neither parental CHO cells nor any of the mutants were observed to metastasize. However, independent isolates of one mutant type, Lec9, showed a dramatic reduction in tumor formation. The altered carbohydrates expressed at the surface of Lec9 cells appeared to be responsible for their loss of tumorigenicity, because revertants for lectin resistance were able to form tumors, and a double mutant (Lec9.Lec1) that expressed a Lec1 glycosylation phenotype also formed tumors. Finally, Lec9 cells were able to form tumors in gamma-irradiated nude mice, suggesting that recognition by an irradiation-sensitive host cell(s) was responsible for their reduced tumorigenicity in untreated nude mice.

Decreased tumorigenicity correlates with expression of altered cell surface carbohydrates in Lec9 CHO cells

To investigate a role for surface carbohydrates in cellular malignancy, 15 different glycosylation-defective CHO cell mutants were examined for their tumorigenic and metastatic capacities after subcutaneous injection into nude mice. Most of the glycosylation mutants displayed similar or slightly decreased tumorigenicity compared with parental CHO cells. Neither parental CHO cells nor any of the mutants were observed to metastasize. However, independent isolates of one mutant type, Lec9, showed a dramatic reduction in tumor formation. The altered carbohydrates expressed at the surface of Lec9 cells appeared to be responsible for their loss of tumorigenicity, because revertants for lectin resistance were able to form tumors, and a double mutant (Lec9.Lec1) that expressed a Lec1 glycosylation phenotype also formed tumors. Finally, Lec9 cells were able to form tumors in gamma-irradiated nude mice, suggesting that recognition by an irradiation-sensitive host cell(s) was responsible for their reduced tumorigenicity in untreated nude mice.

Inert particles inhibit natural killer cell function in vitro

Aqueous suspensions of inert particles were found to inhibit the baseline and interferon-enhanced natural killer (NK) cell activity of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and large granular lymphocytes (LGLs). This inhibition was induced with latex, silica, and Sephadex particles. The suppression of NK activity was not related to effector cell death as determined by trypan blue exclusion. The inhibition of NK cell function was more pronounced with prolonged incubation and could be partially reversed with monocyte depletion or the addition of indomethacin, a prostaglandin synthesis inhibitor, but not with the addition of the lipoxygenase inhibitors nordihydroguaiaretic acid and BW755C. Similarly, particle exposure inhibited the NK cell function of monocyte-depleted large granular lymphocytes with and without the add-back of glass adherent cells, implying that monocyte-independent NK suppressive mechanisms were also present. These data demonstrate that inert particles are immunosuppressive in vitro and can inhibit baseline and interferon-stimulated NK cell function of LGLs and PBMC through monocyte-dependent and independent pathways.

Natural killer cells--toward clinical application

Natural killer (NK) cells are non-B, non-T lymphoid cells of uncertain lineage that rapidly recognize and lyse a large variety of tumor or virus-infected cells, without the need for either prior sensitization or major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-dependent recognition. Though some essential problems in understanding NK cell function are still unsolved, considerable progress has been achieved in recent years following the identification of the characteristic large granular lymphocyte (LGL) morphology of NK cells and their purification, the study of their function at the single-cell level, and the cloning of mouse and human NK cell lines. Activated mainly by interferon (IFN), as well as important producers of IFN, NK cells appear to have a distinct role in immunoregulation in addition to their postulated major role in "immune surveillance," for which convincing in vivo data has accumulated. Future clinical applications may therefore include manipulations of the NK system through expansion and activation of patient's LGL or the use of cloned human NK cell lines.