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Bhattacharya M, Sharma AR, Patra BC, Sharma G, Seo EM, Nam JS, Chakraborty C, Lee SS. DNA barcoding to fishes: current status and future directions. Mitochondrial DNA A DNA Mapp Seq Anal 2015; 27:2744-52. [PMID: 26057011 DOI: 10.3109/19401736.2015.1046175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
DNA barcoding appears to be a promising approach for taxonomic identification, characterization, and discovery of newer species, facilitating biodiversity studies. It helps researchers to appreciate genetic and evolutionary associations by collection of molecular, morphological, and distributional data. Fish DNA barcoding, based on the sequencing of a uniform area of Cytochrome C Oxidase type I (COI) gene, has received significant interest as an accurate tool for species identification, authentication, and phylogenetic analysis. The aim of this review article was to investigate recent global status, approaches, and future direction of DNA barcoding in fisheries sectors. We have tried to highlight its possible impacts, complications, and validation issues at species levels for biodiversity analysis. Moreover, an effort has been put forward to understand issues related to various marker genes associated with barcode process as primer sequences and have concluded barcode promotion as an indispensable tool of molecular biology for the development of taxonomic support systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manojit Bhattacharya
- a Institute for Skeletal Aging & Orthopedic Surgery, Hallym University - Chuncheon Sacred Heart Hospital , Chuncheon-si , Korea .,b Aquaculture Research Unit, Department of Zoology , Vidyasagar University , Midnapore , West Bengal , India , and
| | - Ashish Ranjan Sharma
- a Institute for Skeletal Aging & Orthopedic Surgery, Hallym University - Chuncheon Sacred Heart Hospital , Chuncheon-si , Korea
| | - Bidhan Chandra Patra
- b Aquaculture Research Unit, Department of Zoology , Vidyasagar University , Midnapore , West Bengal , India , and
| | - Garima Sharma
- a Institute for Skeletal Aging & Orthopedic Surgery, Hallym University - Chuncheon Sacred Heart Hospital , Chuncheon-si , Korea
| | - Eun-Min Seo
- a Institute for Skeletal Aging & Orthopedic Surgery, Hallym University - Chuncheon Sacred Heart Hospital , Chuncheon-si , Korea
| | - Ju-Suk Nam
- a Institute for Skeletal Aging & Orthopedic Surgery, Hallym University - Chuncheon Sacred Heart Hospital , Chuncheon-si , Korea
| | - Chiranjib Chakraborty
- a Institute for Skeletal Aging & Orthopedic Surgery, Hallym University - Chuncheon Sacred Heart Hospital , Chuncheon-si , Korea .,c Department of Bio-informatics , School of Computer and Information Sciences, Galgotias University , Greater Noida , India
| | - Sang-Soo Lee
- a Institute for Skeletal Aging & Orthopedic Surgery, Hallym University - Chuncheon Sacred Heart Hospital , Chuncheon-si , Korea
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Pereira LHG, Maia GMG, Hanner R, Foresti F, Oliveira C. DNA barcodes discriminate freshwater fishes from the Paraíba do Sul River Basin, São Paulo, Brazil. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 22 Suppl 1:71-9. [DOI: 10.3109/19401736.2010.532213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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CHRISTENSEN BENT, JELNES JENS. Sibling species in the oligochaete worm Lumbricillus rivalis (Enchytraeidae) revealed by enzyme polymorphisms and breeding experiments. Hereditas 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-5223.1976.tb01588.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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Ward RD, Hanner R, Hebert PDN. The campaign to DNA barcode all fishes, FISH-BOL. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2009; 74:329-56. [PMID: 20735564 DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2008.02080.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 429] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
FISH-BOL, the Fish Barcode of Life campaign, is an international research collaboration that is assembling a standardized reference DNA sequence library for all fishes. Analysis is targeting a 648 base pair region of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) gene. More than 5000 species have already been DNA barcoded, with an average of five specimens per species, typically vouchers with authoritative identifications. The barcode sequence from any fish, fillet, fin, egg or larva can be matched against these reference sequences using BOLD; the Barcode of Life Data System (http://www.barcodinglife.org). The benefits of barcoding fishes include facilitating species identification, highlighting cases of range expansion for known species, flagging previously overlooked species and enabling identifications where traditional methods cannot be applied. Results thus far indicate that barcodes separate c. 98 and 93% of already described marine and freshwater fish species, respectively. Several specimens with divergent barcode sequences have been confirmed by integrative taxonomic analysis as new species. Past concerns in relation to the use of fish barcoding for species discrimination are discussed. These include hybridization, recent radiations, regional differentiation in barcode sequences and nuclear copies of the barcode region. However, current results indicate these issues are of little concern for the great majority of specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- R D Ward
- CSIRO Wealth from Oceans Flagship, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, GPO Box 1538, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia.
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FRYER GEOFFREY. An ecological validation of a taxonomic distinction: the ecology of Acanthocyclops vernalis and A. robustus (Crustacea: Copepoda). Zool J Linn Soc 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1096-3642.1985.tb01797.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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JELNES JENSERIK. Experimental taxonomy of Bulinus (Gastropoda: Planorbidae): the West and North African species reconsidered, based upon an electrophoretic study of several enzymes per individual. Zool J Linn Soc 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1096-3642.1986.tb01327.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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SKIBINSKI DOF, BEARDMORE JA, CROSS TF. Aspects of the population genetics of Mytilus (Mytilidae; Mollusca) in the British Isles. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1983.tb00782.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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WALLIS GP, BEARDMORE JA. An electrophoretic study of the systematic relationships of some closely related goby species (Pisces, Gobiidae). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1984.tb01673.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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BAVESTRELLO GIORGIO, SARÀ MICHELE. Morphological and genetic differences in ecologically distinct populations of Petrosia (Porifera, Demospongiae). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1992.tb00655.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Ward RD, Zemlak TS, Innes BH, Last PR, Hebert PDN. DNA barcoding Australia's fish species. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2006; 360:1847-57. [PMID: 16214743 PMCID: PMC1609232 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2005.1716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1695] [Impact Index Per Article: 94.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Two hundred and seven species of fish, mostly Australian marine fish, were sequenced (barcoded) for a 655 bp region of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I gene (cox1). Most species were represented by multiple specimens, and 754 sequences were generated. The GC content of the 143 species of teleosts was higher than the 61 species of sharks and rays (47.1% versus 42.2%), largely due to a higher GC content of codon position 3 in the former (41.1% versus 29.9%). Rays had higher GC than sharks (44.7% versus 41.0%), again largely due to higher GC in the 3rd codon position in the former (36.3% versus 26.8%). Average within-species, genus, family, order and class Kimura two parameter (K2P) distances were 0.39%, 9.93%, 15.46%, 22.18% and 23.27%, respectively. All species could be differentiated by their cox1 sequence, although single individuals of each of two species had haplotypes characteristic of a congener. Although DNA barcoding aims to develop species identification systems, some phylogenetic signal was apparent in the data. In the neighbour-joining tree for all 754 sequences, four major clusters were apparent: chimaerids, rays, sharks and teleosts. Species within genera invariably clustered, and generally so did genera within families. Three taxonomic groups-dogfishes of the genus Squalus, flatheads of the family Platycephalidae, and tunas of the genus Thunnus-were examined more closely. The clades revealed after bootstrapping generally corresponded well with expectations. Individuals from operational taxonomic units designated as Squalus species B through F formed individual clades, supporting morphological evidence for each of these being separate species. We conclude that cox1 sequencing, or 'barcoding', can be used to identify fish species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert D Ward
- CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, GPO Box 1538, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia.
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Kirk AA, Lacey LA, Brown JK, Ciomperlik MA, Goolsby JA, Vacek DC, Wendel LE, Napompeth B. Variation in the Bemisia tabaci s. l. species complex (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) and its natural enemies leading to successful biological control of Bemisia biotype B in the USA. BULLETIN OF ENTOMOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2000; 90:317-327. [PMID: 11020790 DOI: 10.1017/s0007485300000444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Parasitoids of the Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) species complex collected in Spain and Thailand were evaluated as biological control agents of B. tabaci biotype B in cole crops in Texas, USA. Parasitoids were identified by morphological and RAPD-PCR analyses. The most abundant parasitoid from Spain was Eretmocerus mundus Mercet with apparent field parasitism of 39-44%. In Thailand, Encarsia formosa Gahan, E. transvena Timberlake, E. adrianae Lopez-Avila, Eretmocerus sp. 1 and sp. 2 emerged, with apparent field parasitism of 1-65%. Identification and molecular classification of B. tabaci associated with parasitoid collections and in the release site in Texas were accomplished using morphological traits and nucleotide sequence comparison of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I gene (COI) (700-720 bp). Collections of B. tabaci from Thailand grouped separately from B types from Arizona and Florida and the target B type from Texas, USA, a cluster from India, and other New World B. tabaci. The Spanish B. tabaci host of E. mundus which was laboratory and field-tested to achieve biological control of the B type was most closely related to non-B type B. tabaci populations from Spain and Sudan, the latter which formed a second group within the larger clade that also contained the B type cluster. Laboratory tests indicated that E. mundus from Spain parasitized more B. tabaci type B than did Eretmocerus spp. native to Texas and other exotic parasitoids evaluated. Eretmocerus mundus from Spain also successfully parasitized B. tabaci type B when field-released in a 0.94 million ha test area in Texas, and has significantly enhanced control of B. tabaci type B in California, USA. In contrast, parasitoids from Thailand failed to establish in the field in Texas, collectively suggesting a positive correlation between the centres of diversity of compatible parasitoid-host complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Kirk
- European Biological Control Laboratory, USDA/ARS, Campus International de Baillarguet, CS 90013, Montferrier sur Lez, 34980, St Gely du Fesc, CEDEX, France.
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Dalby JE. Reproductive and electrophoretic evidence for genetic maintenance of dimorphism in the ascidianPyura stoloniferanear Melbourne, Australia. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.1080/00785236.1997.10428673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Rice SA, Simon JL. Intraspecific variation in the pollution indicator polychaetePolydora ligni(Spionidae). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1980. [DOI: 10.1080/00785326.1980.10425509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Harper PC. The plasma proteins of some albatrosses and petrels as an index of relationship in the Procellariiformes. NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF ZOOLOGY 1978. [DOI: 10.1080/03014223.1978.10428338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Maguire GB, Fielder DR. Disc electrophoresis of the haemolymph proteins of some portunid crabs (Decapoda:Portunidae)-II. Physiological and taxonomic aspects. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. A, COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY 1975; 52:43-7. [PMID: 240564 DOI: 10.1016/s0300-9629(75)80124-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Massaro EJ. Isozyme patterns of coregonine fishes: Evidence for multiple cistrons for lactate and malate dehydrogenases and achromatic bands in the tissues ofProsobium cylindraceum (Pallas) andP. coulteri (Eigenmann and Eigenmann). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1972. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.1401790211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Pennington K, Fuerst R. Biochemical and morphological effects of various gases on rabbit erythrocytes. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 1971; 22:476-81. [PMID: 5545499 DOI: 10.1080/00039896.1971.10665881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Evans AA. Taxonomic value of gel electrophoresis of proteins fom mycophagus and plant-parasitic nematodes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1971. [DOI: 10.1016/0020-711x(71)90043-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Johnson PT. The coelomic elements of sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus and Centrostephanus). VI. Cellulose-acetate membrane electrophoresis. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1970; 37:289-300. [PMID: 4099938 DOI: 10.1016/0010-406x(70)90557-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Guttman SI. An electrophoretic study of the hemoglobins of the sand lizards, Callisaurus, Cophosaurus, Holbrookia and Uma. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1970; 34:569-74. [PMID: 5455641 DOI: 10.1016/0010-406x(70)90285-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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McCabe MM, Dean DM. Esterase polymorphisms in the skipjack tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1970; 34:671-81. [PMID: 5455647 DOI: 10.1016/0010-406x(70)90292-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Guttman SI. Haemoglobin electrophoresis and relationships within the lizard genus Sceloporus (Sauria: Iguanidae). COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1970; 34:563-8. [PMID: 5455640 DOI: 10.1016/0010-406x(70)90284-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Poluhowich JJ. An electrophoretic comparison of hemoglobins from American and European eels. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1970. [DOI: 10.1016/0010-406x(70)90301-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Djangmah J. The effects of feeding and starvation on copper in the blood and hepatopancreas, and on blood proteins of crangon vulgaris (fabricius). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1970. [DOI: 10.1016/0010-406x(70)90823-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Holmes RS, Massaro EJ. Phylogenetic variation of rodent liver esterases. THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY 1969; 172:323-34. [PMID: 5372011 DOI: 10.1002/jez.1401720307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Brush AH. Conalbumin variation in populations of the redwinged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1968; 25:159-68. [PMID: 5657193 DOI: 10.1016/0010-406x(68)90922-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Nanwell C, Schlesinger C. Polymorphism of turle hemoglobin and geographical differences int he frequency of variants of Chrysdemyspicta “slow” hemoglobin —an example of “temperature anti-adaptation”? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1966. [DOI: 10.1016/0010-406x(66)90246-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Abstract
The hemoglobin of the "thin" sibling species of Thyonella gemmata (phylum: Echinodermata; class: Holothuria) has three electrophoretically distinct polypeptide chains. In "stout" sibling species of T. gemmata there are only two chain types. These results account for the greater number of multiple hemoglobins in "thins" than in "stouts," as well as for differences in the amounts of some of the multiple hemoglobins when comparisons are mnade of hemolyzates of erythrocytes from the water vascular systemn and from the main body cavity of the "thin" but not the "stout" sibling species.
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Manwell C. Metamorphosis and gene action--I. Electrophoresis of dehydrogenases, esterases, phosphatases, hemoglobins and other soluble proteins of tadpole and adult bullfrogs. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1966; 17:805-23. [PMID: 5943915 DOI: 10.1016/0010-406x(66)90123-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Baker CM, Hanson HC. Molecular genetics of avian proteins. VI. Evolutionary implications of blood proteins of eleven species of geese. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1966; 17:997-1006. [PMID: 4161416 DOI: 10.1016/0010-406x(66)90138-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Manwell C, Kerst KV. Possibilities of biochemical taxonomy of bats using hemoglobin, lactate dehydrogenase, esterases and other proteins. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1966; 17:741-54. [PMID: 5943910 DOI: 10.1016/0010-406x(66)90117-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Baker CM, Manwell C, Labisky RF, Harper JA. Molecular genetics of avian proteins--V. Egg, blood and tissue proteins of the ring-necked pheasant, Phasianus colchicus L. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1966; 17:467-99. [PMID: 5949622 DOI: 10.1016/0010-406x(66)90581-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Baker CM. Molecular genetics of avian proteins. IV. The egg-white proteins of the Golden pheasant, Chrysolophus pictus L., and Lady Amherst's pheasant, C. Amherstiae Leadbeater, and their possible evolutionary significance. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1965; 16:93-101. [PMID: 5861537 DOI: 10.1016/0010-406x(65)90166-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Abstract
A biochemical polymorphism of coelomic hemerythrin has been found in the sipunculid Golfingia gouldii; the electrophoretically "fast" and "slow" coelomic hemerythrins differ in their oxygen equilibria and by a single peptide in tryptic and chymotryptic "fingerprints." All individuals of this sipunculid have the same vascular hemerythrin, which is electrophoretically different from any of the coelomic hemerythrins. Vascular and coelomic hemerythrins of another sipunculid, Dendrostomum cymodoceae, have quite different "fingerprints." Thus, on the basis of two separate types of evidence the tissue-specific hemerythrins appear to have a distinct genetic basis. The embryological and phylogenetic implications are discussed.
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