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Hughes AD. How do thiazide and thiazide-like diuretics lower blood pressure? J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 2016; 5:155-60. [PMID: 15803433 DOI: 10.3317/jraas.2004.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Thiazide diuretics are widely used for the treatment of hypertension, but the mechanism by which these drugs lower blood pressure in the long term remains unknown. This article reviews current knowledge about the hypotensive actions of thiazides and thiazide-like diuretics and discusses possible mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alun D Hughes
- Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London W21NY, UK.
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Sun Y, Lau CW, Jia Y, Li Y, Wang W, Ran J, Li F, Huang Y, Zhou H, Yang B. Functional inhibition of urea transporter UT-B enhances endothelial-dependent vasodilatation and lowers blood pressure via L-arginine-endothelial nitric oxide synthase-nitric oxide pathway. Sci Rep 2016; 6:18697. [PMID: 26739766 PMCID: PMC4703984 DOI: 10.1038/srep18697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian urea transporters (UTs), UT-A and UT-B, are best known for their role in urine concentration. UT-B is especially distributed in multiple extrarenal tissues with abundant expression in vascular endothelium, but little is known about its role in vascular function. The present study investigated the physiological significance of UT-B in regulating vasorelaxations and blood pressure. UT-B deletion in mice or treatment with UT-B inhibitor PU-14 in Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKYs) and spontaneous hypertensive rats (SHRs) reduced blood pressure. Acetylcholine-induced vasorelaxation was significantly augmented in aortas from UT-B null mice. PU-14 concentration-dependently produced endothelium-dependent relaxations in thoracic aortas and mesenteric arteries from both mice and rats and the relaxations were abolished by N(ω)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester. Both expression and phosphorylation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) were up-regulated and expression of arginase I was down-regulated when UT-B was inhibited both in vivo and in vitro. PU-14 induced endothelium-dependent relaxations to a similar degree in aortas from 12 weeks old SHRs or WKYs. In summary, here we report for the first time that inhibition of UT-B plays an important role in regulating vasorelaxations and blood pressure via up-regulation of L-arginine-eNOS-NO pathway, and it may become another potential therapeutic target for the treatment of hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences, Ministry of Education, Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Chi-Wai Lau
- Institute of Vascular Medicine and Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yingli Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences, Ministry of Education, Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Yingjie Li
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences, Ministry of Education, Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Weiling Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences, Ministry of Education, Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Jianhua Ran
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience Center, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Fei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences, Ministry of Education, Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Yu Huang
- Institute of Vascular Medicine and Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Hong Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences, Ministry of Education, Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Baoxue Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Key Laboratory of Molecular Cardiovascular Sciences, Ministry of Education, Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
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Kang MJ, Song WH, Shim BH, Oh SY, Lee HY, Chung EY, Sohn Y, Lee J. Pharmacologically active metabolites of currently marketed drugs: potential resources for new drug discovery and development. YAKUGAKU ZASSHI 2010; 130:1325-37. [PMID: 20930485 DOI: 10.1248/yakushi.130.1325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Biotransformation is the major clearance mechanism of therapeutic agents from the body. Biotransformation is known not only to facilitate the elimination of drugs by changing the molecular structure to more hydrophilic, but also lead to pharmacological inactivation of therapeutic compounds. However, in some cases, the biotransformation of drugs can lead to the generation of pharmacologically active metabolites, responsible for the pharmacological actions. This review provides an update of the kinds of pharmacologically active metabolites and some of their individual pharmacological and pharmacokinetic aspects, and describes their importance as resources for drug discovery and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myung Joo Kang
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, South Korea
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Ceron CS, Castro MM, Rizzi E, Montenegro MF, Fontana V, Salgado MCO, Gerlach RF, Tanus-Santos JE. Spironolactone and hydrochlorothiazide exert antioxidant effects and reduce vascular matrix metalloproteinase-2 activity and expression in a model of renovascular hypertension. Br J Pharmacol 2010; 160:77-87. [PMID: 20331602 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00678.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Increased oxidative stress and up-regulation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) may cause structural and functional vascular changes in renovascular hypertension. We examined whether treatment with spironolactone (SPRL), hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ) or both drugs together modified hypertension-induced changes in arterial blood pressure, aortic remodelling, vascular reactivity, oxidative stress and MMP levels and activity, in a model of renovascular hypertension. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH We used the two-kidney,one-clip (2K1C) model of hypertension in Wistar rats. Sham-operated or hypertensive rats were treated with vehicle, SPRL (25 mg.kg(-1).day(-1)), HCTZ (20 mg.kg(-1).day(-1)) or a combination for 8 weeks. Systolic blood pressure was monitored weekly. Aortic rings were isolated to assess endothelium-dependent and -independent relaxations. Morphometry of the vascular wall was carried out in sections of aorta. Aortic NADPH oxidase activity and superoxide production were evaluated. Formation of reactive oxygen species was measured in plasma as thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances. Aortic MMP-2 levels and activity were determined by gelatin and in situ zymography, fluorimetry and immunohistochemistry. KEY RESULTS Treatment with SPRL, HCTZ or the combination attenuated 2K1C-induced hypertension, and reversed the endothelial dysfunction in 2K1C rats. Both drugs or the combination reversed vascular aortic remodelling induced by hypertension, attenuated hypertension-induced increases in oxidative stress and reduced MMP-2 levels and activity. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS SPRL or HCTZ, alone or combined, exerted antioxidant effects, and decreased renovascular hypertension-induced MMP-2 up-regulation, thus improving the vascular dysfunction and remodelling found in this model of hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- C S Ceron
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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Joannides R, Bellien J, Thurlure C, Iacob M, Abeel M, Thuillez C. Fixed combination of perindopril and indapamide at low dose improves endothelial function in essential hypertensive patients after acute administration. Am J Hypertens 2008; 21:679-84. [PMID: 18443573 DOI: 10.1038/ajh.2008.39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fixed combination of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) with thiazide-type diuretics at low dose has been used as first-line therapy for the treatment of essential hypertension but their effect on conduit artery endothelial dysfunction remains unknown. METHODS Thirteen hypertensive patients were assessed after acute administration of a placebo, fixed combination of perindopril-indapamide at low dose: D1 (2 mg/0.625 mg) and twice this dose: D2 (4 mg/1.25 mg), during a double-blind, randomized, crossover study, and were compared with 13 matched controls. Mean arterial pressure (MAP), radial artery diameter (echotracking) and flow (Doppler) were measured during flow-mediated dilatation (FMD) induced by post-ischemic hyperemia (PIH). PIH was characterized by peak flow and duration of hyperemia (t(1/2)). Endothelium-independent dilatation was assessed by trinitrine. RESULTS In hypertensive patients compared with controls, basal radial artery diameter and flow, peak flow, and trinitrine responses were similar while MAP was increased (115 +/- 3 vs. 87 +/- 2 mm Hg), t(1/2) was decreased (11.1 +/- 1.9 vs. 17.2 +/- 2.2 s), and FMD was altered (radial diameter increase: 203 +/- 14 vs. 304 +/- 15 microm). Compared with placebo, only D2 decreased MAP (placebo: 115 +/- 3; D1: 112 +/- 4; D2: 103 +/- 4 mm Hg) and increased t(1/2) (placebo: 11.1 +/- 1.9; D1: 8.7 +/- 1.5; D2:13.0 +/- 1.9 s). Conversely, D1 and D2 increased FMD (placebo: 203 +/- 14; D1: 218 +/- 22; D2: 227 +/- 23 microm) with no change in basal diameter and flow, peak flow, and trinitrine responses. CONCLUSION These results demonstrate that a fixed combination of ACEI/diuretic at low dose significantly improves radial artery FMD in hypertensive patients and suggest a direct effect on conduit artery endothelium that may contribute to vascular protection.
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Vormfelde SV, Burckhardt G, Zirk A, Wojnowski L, Brockmöller J. Pharmacogenomics of diuretic drugs: data on rare monogenic disorders and on polymorphisms and requirements for further research. Pharmacogenomics 2003; 4:701-34. [PMID: 14596636 DOI: 10.1517/phgs.4.6.701.22817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
This review summarizes the current status of our knowledge about the role of pharmacogenetic variation in response to diuretics and suggests future research topics for the field. Genes with a role in the pharmacokinetics of most diuretics are renal drug transporters, especially OAT1, OAT3 and OCT2 (genes SLC22A6, SLC22A8 and SLC22A2) whereas variants in carbonic anhydrase (CA), cytochrome P450 enzymes and sulfotransferases are relevant only for specific substances. Genes on the pharmacodynamic side include the primary targets of thiazide, loop, K+-sparing and aldosterone antagonistic diuretics: NCC, NKCC2, ENaC and the mineralocorticoid receptor (genes SLC12A3, SLC12A1, SCNN1A, B, G and NR3C2). Rare variants of these proteins cause Gitelman’s syndrome, Bartter’s syndrome, Liddle’s syndrome or pregnancy-induced hypertension. Polymorphisms in these and in associated proteins such as GNB3, α-adducin and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) seem to be clinically relevant. In conclusion, first knowledge has evolved that efficacy of diuretic drugs may be determined by genetic polymorphisms in genes determining pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of this drug class. In the future, the selection of a diuretic drug or the dosing schedules may be individually chosen based on pharmacogenetic parameters, however, many questions remain to be answered before this fantasy becomes reality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Viktor Vormfelde
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology & Department of Vegetative Physiology, Georg August University Göttingen, Robert-Koch-Str. 40, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany.
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Galán L, Ferrer T, Artiles A, Talavera K, Salinas E, Orta G, García-Barreto D, Alvarez JL. Cardiac cellular actions of hydrochlorothiazide. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2001; 15:9-17. [PMID: 11468008 DOI: 10.1046/j.1472-8206.2001.00009.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In long term treatment, thiazide diuretics such as hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ) lower blood pressure by decreasing peripheral resistance rather than by their diuretic effect. This action has been attributed to the opening of Ca2+-activated K+ channels in vascular smooth muscle cells. However, little is known about their cardiac cellular actions. Here we investigated the possible actions of HCTZ on action potential and contraction of rat ventricular muscle strips and on the ionic currents of isolated rat ventricular cardiomyocytes. HCTZ depressed ventricular contraction with an IC30 of 1.85 microM (60% decrease at 100 microM). Action potential duration at -60 mV and maximal rate of depolarization were, however, only slightly decreased by 12% and 22%, respectively, at 100 microM. At the single cell level, HCTZ (100 microM) depressed the fast Na+ current (INa) and the L-type Ca2+ current (ICaL) by 30% and 20%, respectively. The effects on ICaL were not voltage-or frequency-dependent. In cells intracellularly perfused with 50 microM cyclic adenosine, monophosphate HCTZ reduced ICaL by 33%. The transient (Ito), the delayed rectifier and the inward rectifier potassium currents were decreased by 20% at 100 microM HCTZ. The effects on Ito were voltage-dependent. In conclusion, HCTZ at high concentrations possesses a negative inotropic action that could be in part due to its blocking action on INa and ICaL. The actions of HCTZ on multiple cardiac ionic currents could explain its weak effect on action potential duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Galán
- Laboratorio de Electrofisiología, Instituto de Cardiología y Cirugía Cardiovascular, La Habana, Cuba Laboratorio de Fisiología Cardiovascular, Instituto de Fisiología, Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Puebla, Mexico
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Matrougui K, Lévy BI, Schiavi P, Guez D, Henrion D. Indapamide improves flow-induced dilation in hypertensive rats with a high salt intake. J Hypertens 1998; 16:1485-90. [PMID: 9814620 DOI: 10.1097/00004872-199816100-00013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) are sensitive to a high salt intake and we investigated the question of whether flow-induced dilation is affected by this type of diet, as flow responses are especially sensitive to small changes in extracellular sodium concentrations. METHODS We evaluated the effects of a diuretic (indapamide, 1.5 mg/kg per day, 8 weeks) on four groups of SHR (n=42). One group was fed with a normal-salt diet (0.4%, control group, n=10), the second with a high-sodium diet (8%, n=12), the third with a high-sodium diet and indapamide (1.5 mg/kg per day, 8% salt, n=10) and the fourth group was fed with indapamide alone (1.5 mg/kg per day, n=10). The response to flow was studied in mesenteric resistance arteries (146+/-6.1 microm internal diameter, pressure 100 mmHg) cannulated in vitro in an arteriograph. RESULTS The increase in mean arterial pressure (from 186+/-4 to 218+/-6 mmHg; P < 0.01) and heart weight: body weight ratio (3.48+/-0.09 versus 4.34+/-0.1 mg/g; P< 0.01) caused by the high salt intake was prevented by indapamide. A high salt intake significantly decreased flow-induced dilation (6+/-0.8 versus 10.7+/-1.2 microm dilation with a flow of 160 microl/min; P< 0.05), while indapamide significantly prevented the decrease in flow-induced dilation in high-salt SHR. Indapamide had no significant effect on flow-induced dilation in mesenteric resistance arteries from SHR with a normal-salt diet. CONCLUSIONS Indapamide prevented the decrease in flow-induced dilation caused by a high-salt diet Therefore, indapamide might counteract the disturbance in sodium-sensitive flow sensor(s), through a diuretic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Matrougui
- INSERM U141, IFR 6 (Circulation Lariboisière), Université Paris VII, France
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Vergely C, Walker MK, Zeller M, Rademakers JR, Maupoil V, Schiavi P, Guez D, Rochette L. Antioxidant properties of indapamide, 5-OH indapamide and hydrochlorothiazide evaluated by oxygen-radical absorbing capacity and electron paramagnetic resonance. Mol Cell Biochem 1998; 178:151-5. [PMID: 9546594 DOI: 10.1023/a:1006845612499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The aim of these experiments was to investigate the radical scavenging properties of three diuretics: indapamide (IND) and its major metabolite, 5-OH indapamide (5-OH IND), compared to a reference diuretic, hydrochlorothiazide (HTZ). Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) was used to determine the scavenging abilities of these compounds on enzymatically produced superoxide radical anion, with 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide (DMPO) used as a spin-trap. These experiments revealed that IND and specially 5-OH IND were effective superoxide radical anion scavengers at 0.2 mg/ml. In the second part of these studies, allophycocyanin was used as an indicator of free radical mediated protein damage. In the assay, 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) hydrochloride (AAPH) was used as a peroxyl radical generator, Trolox (a water-soluble analogue of vitamin E) as a control standard, and the loss of allophycocyanin fluorescence was monitored. The antioxidant effects of the diuretics were expressed in oxygen-radical absorbing capacity (ORAC), where one ORAC unit equals the net protection produced by 1 microM Trolox. HTZ showed no protection up to 100 microM final concentration, whereas IND and 5-OH IND showed linear correlation with respect to concentration when expressed in ORAC units: 5-OH IND induced the highest protection against peroxyl radical. The above observations suggested that IND and 5-OH IND are potent radical scavengers, with the metabolite 5-OH IND having a superior antioxidant potency than IND. By contrast, HTZ had no effect. These radical scavenging properties of 5-OH IND may be of clinical interest for vascular protection and may help to protect the heart from oxidative injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Vergely
- Laboratoire de Physiopathologie et Pharmacologie Cardiovasculaires Expérimentales, Faculté de Médecine, Dijon, France
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