Three-dimensional organization of micronuclei induced by colchicine in PtK1 cells

The Dynamic Instability of the Aneuploid Genome

Proper partitioning of replicated sister chromatids at each mitosis is crucial for maintaining cell homeostasis. Errors in this process lead to aneuploidy, a condition in which daughter cells harbor genome imbalances. Importantly, aneuploid cells often experience DNA damage, which in turn could drive genome instability. This might be the product of DNA damage accumulation in micronuclei and/or a consequence of aneuploidy-induced replication stress in S-phase. Although high levels of genome instability are associated with cell cycle arrest, they can also confer a proliferative advantage in some circumstances and fuel tumor growth. Here, we review the main consequences of chromosome segregation errors on genome stability, with a special focus on the bidirectional relationship between aneuploidy and DNA damage. Also, we discuss recent findings showing how increased genome instability can provide a proliferation improvement under specific conditions, including chemotherapeutic treatments.

Small but mighty: the causes and consequences of micronucleus rupture

Micronuclei are small DNA-containing nuclear structures that are spatially isolated from the main nucleus. They are frequently found in pathologies, including cancer. It was recently shown that these nuclear structures are not only biomarkers of disease but also play an active role in tumor biology. Many consequences of micronucleus formation on tumor biology are dependent on the frequent and irreversible rupture of their nuclear envelopes, which results in the exposure of their DNA contents to the cytoplasm. In this review, we discuss models of defective nuclear envelope deposition on missegregated chromosomes that lead to nuclear envelope rupture. Furthermore, we expound upon the various downstream consequences of micronucleus nuclear envelope rupture on cells. These consequences include a massive DNA rearrangement phenomenon called chromothripsis and activation of the cGAS-STING innate immune signaling pathway, which can be a double-edged sword with tumorigenesis and tumor prevention functions. Although micronuclei are small structures, the impact they have on cells and their microenvironment is quite large.

Micronuclei, which contain faulty chromosomes or chromosome fragments and occur outside the main cellular nucleus, are prone to rupturing, which leads to DNA changes that can drive tumor development. A team led by Mijung Kwon from Ewha Womans University in Seoul and Jae-Ho Lee of Ajou University School of Medicine in Suwon, both in South Korea, review how these micronuclei tend to burst, spilling their contents into the cell with devastating consequences. The chromosomes they contain break into tiny fragments and this broken DNA finds its way into the main nucleus, leading to chromosomal rearrangements that can permanently alter genomic function. The rupture of micronuclei also activates a part of the innate immune system that can promote cancer cell invasion and spread. Drugs targeting these processes could aid in the treatment of cancer.

Understanding the birth of rupture-prone and irreparable micronuclei

Micronuclei are extra-nuclear bodies mainly derived from ana-telophase lagging chromosomes/chromatins (LCs) that are not incorporated into primary nuclei at mitotic exit. Unlike primary nuclei, most micronuclei are enclosed by nuclear envelope (NE) that is highly susceptible to spontaneous and irreparable rupture. Ruptured micronuclei act as triggers of chromothripsis-like chaotic chromosomal rearrangements and cGAS-mediated innate immunity and inflammation, raising the view that micronuclei play active roles in human aging and tumorigenesis. Thus, understanding the ways in which micronuclear envelope (mNE) goes awry acquires increased importance. Here, we review the data to present a general framework for this question. We firstly describe NE reassembly after mitosis and NE repair during interphase. Simultaneously, we briefly discuss how mNE is organized and how mNE rupture controls the fate of micronuclei and micronucleated cells. As a focus of this review, we highlight current knowledge about why mNE is rupture-prone and irreparable. For this, we survey observations from a series of elegant studies to provide a systematic overview. We conclude that the birth of rupture-prone and irreparable micronuclei may be the cumulative effects of their intracellular geographic origins, biophysical properties, and specific mNE features. We propose that DNA damage and immunogenicity in micronuclei increase stepwise from altered mNE components, mNE rupture, and refractory to repair. Throughout our discussion, we note interesting issues in mNE fragility that have yet to be resolved.

On the Complexity of Mechanisms and Consequences of Chromothripsis: An Update

In the present review, we focus on the phenomenon of chromothripsis, a new type of complex chromosomal rearrangements. We discuss the challenges of chromothripsis detection and its distinction from other chromoanagenesis events. Along with already known causes and mechanisms, we introduce aberrant epigenetic regulation as a possible pathway to chromothripsis. We address the issue of chromothripsis characteristics in cancers and benign tumours, as well as chromothripsis inheritance in cases of its occurrence in germ cells, zygotes and early embryos. Summarising the presented data on different phenotypic effect of chromothripsis, we assume that its consequences are most likely determined not by the chromosome shattering and reassembly themselves, but by the genome regions involved in the rearrangement.

The molecular origins and pathophysiological consequences of micronuclei: New insights into an age-old problem

Micronuclei (MN), the small nucleus-like bodies separated from the primary nucleus, can exist in cells with numerical and/or structural chromosomal aberrations in apparently normal tissues and more so in tumors in humans. While MN have been observed for over 100 years, they were merely and constantly considered as passive indicators of chromosome instability (CIN) for a long time. Relatively little is known about the molecular origins and biological consequences of MN. Rapid technological advances are helping to close these gaps. Very recent studies provide exciting evidence that MN act as key platform for chromothripsis and a trigger of innate immune response, suggesting that MN could affect cellular functions by both genetic and nongenetic means. These previously unappreciated findings have reawakened widespread interests in MN. In this review, the diverse mechanisms leading to MN generation and the complex fate profiles of MN are discussed, together with the evidence for their contribution to CIN, inflammation, senescence and cell death. Moreover, we put this knowledge together into a speculative perspective on how MN may be responsible for cancer development and how their presence may influence the choice of treatment. We suggest that the heterogeneous responses to MN may function physiological to ensure the arrestment, elimination and immune clearance of damaged cells, but pathologically, may enable the survival and oncogenic transformation of cells bearing CIN. These insights not only underscore the complexity of MN biology, but also raise a host of new questions and provide fertile ground for future research.

Altered nuclear envelope structure and proteasome function of micronuclei

Micronuclei are extra-nuclear bodies containing whole chromosomes that were not incorporated into the nucleus after cell division or damaged chromosome fragments. Even though the link between micronuclei and DNA damage is described for a long time, little is known about the functional organization of micronuclei and their contribution to tumorigenesis. We showed fusions between micronuclear membranes and lysosomes by electron microscopy and linked lysosome function to DNA damage levels in micronuclei. In addition, micronuclei drastically differ from primary nuclei in nuclear envelope composition, with a significant increase in the relative amount of nuclear envelope proteins LBR and emerin and a decrease in nuclear pore proteins. Strikingly, micronuclei lack active proteasomes, as the processing subunits and other factors of the ubiquitin proteasome system. Moreover, micronuclear chromatin shows a higher degree of compaction as compared to primary nuclei. The specific aberrations identified in micronuclei and the potential functional consequences of these defects may contribute to the role of micronuclei in catastrophic genomic rearrangements.

Mutational game changer: Chromothripsis and its emerging relevance to cancer

In recent years, the paradigm that genomic abnormalities in cancer cells arise through progressive accumulation of mutational events has been challenged by the discovery of single catastrophic events. One such phenomenon termed chromothripsis, involving massive chromosomal rearrangements arising all at once, has emerged as a major mutational game changer. The strong interest in this process stems from its widespread association with a range of cancer types and its potential as a mutational driver. In this review, we first describe chromothripsis detection and incidence in cancers. We then explore recently proposed underlying mechanistic origins, which explain the curious observations of the highly localised nature of the rearrangements on chromothriptic chromosomes. Detection of chromothriptic patterns following incorporation of single chromosomes into micronuclei or following telomere attrition have greatly contributed to our understanding of the reasons behind this chromosomal restriction. These underlying cellular events have been found to be participants in the tumourigenic process, strongly suggesting a potential role for chromothripsis in cancer development. Thus, we discuss potential implications of chromothripsis for cancer progression and therapy.

G2/M-Phase Checkpoint Adaptation and Micronuclei Formation as Mechanisms That Contribute to Genomic Instability in Human Cells

One of the most common characteristics of cancer cells is genomic instability. Recent research has revealed that G2/M-phase checkpoint adaptation-entering mitosis with damaged DNA-contributes to genomic changes in experimental models. When cancer cells are treated with pharmacological concentrations of genotoxic agents, they undergo checkpoint adaptation; however, a small number of cells are able to survive and accumulate micronuclei. These micronuclei harbour damaged DNA, and are able to replicate and reincorporate their DNA into the main nucleus. Micronuclei are susceptible to chromothripsis, which is a phenomenon characterised by extensively rearranged chromosomes that reassemble from pulverized chromosomes in one cellular event. These processes contribute to genomic instability in cancer cells that survive a genotoxic anti-cancer treatment. This review provides insight into checkpoint adaptation and its connection to micronuclei and possibly chromothripsis. Knowledge about these mechanisms is needed to improve the poor cancer treatment outcomes that result from genomic instability.

Biogenesis of Micronuclei

The presence of micronuclei in a cell is an indicator of DNA damage and genetic instability. In this review, mechanisms of emergence of micronuclei, their functional activity, and pathways of elimination are discussed. It is supposed that morphological and functional varieties of micronuclei as well as their degradation pathways can be determined by the chromosomal material localized inside these cell structures.

Impaired nuclear functions in micronuclei results in genome instability and chromothripsis

Micronuclei (MN) have generally been considered a consequence of DNA damage and, as such, have been used as markers of exposure to genotoxic agents. However, advances in DNA sequencing methods and the development of high-resolution microscopy with which to analyse chromosome dynamics in live cells have been fundamental in building a more refined view of the existing links between DNA damage and micronuclei. Here, we review recent progress indicating that defects of micronuclei affect basic nuclear functions, such as DNA repair and replication, generating massive damage in the chromatin of the MN. In addition, the physical isolation of chromosomes within MN offers an attractive mechanistic explanation for chromothripsis, a massive local DNA fragmentation that produces complex rearrangements restricted to only one or a few chromosomes. When micronuclear chromatin is reincorporated in the daughter cell nuclei, the under-replicated, damaged or rearranged micronuclear chromatin might contribute to genome instability. The traditional conception of micronuclei has been overturned, as they have evolved from passive indicators of DNA damage to active players in the formation of DNA lesions, thus unravelling previously unforeseen roles of micronuclei in the origins of chromosome instability.

Chromosome loss caused by DNA fragmentation induced in main nuclei and micronuclei of human lymphoblastoid cells treated with colcemid

Aneuploidy, a change in the number of chromosomes, plays an essential role in tumorigenesis. Our previous study demonstrated that a loss of a whole chromosome is induced in human lymphocytes by colcemid, a well-known aneugen. Here, to clarify the mechanism for colcemid-induced chromosome loss, we investigated the relationship between chromosome loss and DNA fragmentation in human lymphoblastoid cells treated with colcemid (an aneugen) compared with methyl methanesulfonate (MMS; a clastogen). We analyzed the number of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) signals targeted for a whole chromosome 2 in cytokinesis-blocked binucleated TK6 cells and WTK-1 cells treated with colcemid and MMS, and concurrently detected DNA fragmentation by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay. Results revealed that DNA fragmentation occurred in 60% of all binucleated TK6 cells harboring colcemid-induced chromosome loss (30% of micronuclei and 30% of main nuclei). DNA fragmentation was observed in colcemid-induced micronuclei containing a whole chromosome but not in MMS-induced micronuclei containing chromosome fragments. In contrast, colcemid-induced nondisjunction had no effect on induction of DNA fragmentation, suggesting that DNA fragmentation was triggered by micronuclei containing a whole chromosome but not by micronuclei containing chromosome fragments or nondisjunction. In addition, the frequency of binucleated cells harboring chromosome loss with DNA fragmentation in micronuclei or main nuclei was higher in wild-type p53 TK6 cells than in mutated-p53 WTK-1 cells treated with colcemid. Taken together, these present and previous results suggest that colcemid-induced chromosome loss is caused by DNA fragmentation, which is triggered by a micronucleus with a whole chromosome and controlled by the p53-dependent pathway.

Melanoma-associated mutations in protein phosphatase 6 cause chromosome instability and DNA damage owing to dysregulated Aurora-A

Mutations in the PPP6C catalytic subunit of protein phosphatase 6 (PP6) are drivers for the development of melanoma. Here, we analyse a panel of melanoma-associated mutations in PPP6C and find that these generally compromise assembly of the PP6 holoenzyme and catalytic activity towards a model substrate. Detailed analysis of one mutant, PPP6C-H114Y, in both primary melanoma and engineered cell lines reveals it is destabilized and undergoes increased proteasome-mediated turnover. Global analysis of phosphatase substrates by mass spectrometry identifies the oncogenic kinase Aurora-A as the major PP6 substrate that is dysregulated under these conditions. Accordingly, cells lacking PPP6C or carrying the PPP6C-H114Y allele have elevated Aurora-A kinase activity and display chromosome instability with associated Aurora-A-dependent micronucleation. Chromosomes mis-segregated to these micronuclei are preferentially stained by the DNA damage marker γ-H2AX, suggesting that loss of PPP6C promotes both chromosome instability and DNA damage. These findings support the view that formation of micronuclei rather than chromosome instability alone explains how loss of PPP6C, and more generally mitotic spindle and centrosome defects, can act as drivers for genome instability in melanoma and other cancers.

Micronuclei in genotoxicity assessment: from genetics to epigenetics and beyond

Micronuclei (MN) are extra-nuclear bodies that contain damaged chromosome fragments and/or whole chromosomes that were not incorporated into the nucleus after cell division. MN can be induced by defects in the cell repair machinery and accumulation of DNA damages and chromosomal aberrations. A variety of genotoxic agents may induce MN formation leading to cell death, genomic instability, or cancer development. In this review, the genetic and epigenetic mechanisms of MN formation after various clastogenic and aneugenic effects on cell division and cell cycle are described. The knowledge accumulated in literature on cytotoxicity of various genotoxins is precisely reflected and individual sensitivity to MN formation due to single gene polymorphisms is discussed. The importance of rapid MN scoring with respect to the cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay is also evaluated.

Is DNA damage response ready for action anywhere?

Organisms are continuously exposed to DNA damaging agents, consequently, cells have developed an intricate system known as the DNA damage response (DDR) in order to detect and repair DNA lesions. This response has to be rapid and accurate in order to keep genome integrity. It has been observed that the condensation state of chromatin hinders a proper DDR. However, the condensation state of chromatin is not the only barrier to DDR. In this review, we have collected data regarding the presence of DDR factors on micronuclear DNA lesions that indicate that micronuclei are almost incapable of generating an effective DDR because of defects in their nuclear envelope. Finally, considering the recent observations about the reincorporation of micronuclei to the main bulk of chromosomes, we suggest that, under certain circumstances, micronuclei carrying DNA damage might be a source of chromosome instability.

DNA breaks and chromosome pulverization from errors in mitosis

The involvement of whole-chromosome aneuploidy in tumorigenesis is the subject of debate, in large part because of the lack of insight into underlying mechanisms. Here we identify a mechanism by which errors in mitotic chromosome segregation generate DNA breaks via the formation of structures called micronuclei. Whole-chromosome-containing micronuclei form when mitotic errors produce lagging chromosomes. We tracked the fate of newly generated micronuclei and found that they undergo defective and asynchronous DNA replication, resulting in DNA damage and often extensive fragmentation of the chromosome in the micronucleus. Micronuclei can persist in cells over several generations but the chromosome in the micronucleus can also be distributed to daughter nuclei. Thus, chromosome segregation errors potentially lead to mutations and chromosome rearrangements that can integrate into the genome. Pulverization of chromosomes in micronuclei may also be one explanation for 'chromothripsis' in cancer and developmental disorders, where isolated chromosomes or chromosome arms undergo massive local DNA breakage and rearrangement.

Nuclear envelope defects impede a proper response to micronuclear DNA lesions

When damage is inflicted in nuclear DNA, cells activate a hierarchical plethora of proteins that constitute the DNA damage response machinery. In contrast to the cell nucleus, the ability of micronuclear DNA lesions to activate this complex network is controversial. In order to determine whether the DNA contained in micronuclei is protected by the cellular damage response system, we studied the recruitment of excision repair factors to photolesions inflicted in the DNA of radiation-induced micronuclei. To perform this analysis, primary human dermal fibroblasts were exposed to UV-C light to induce photolesions in nuclear and micronuclear DNA. By means of immunofluorescence techniques, we observed that most micronuclei were devoid of NER factors. We conclude that UV photoproducts in micronuclei are mostly unable to generate an effective DNA damage response. We observed that the micronuclear envelope structure is a determinant factor that influences the repair of the DNA lesions inside micronuclei. Therefore, our results allow us to conclude that photolesions in radiation-induced micronuclei are poorly processed because the repair factors are unable to reach the micronuclear chromatin when a micronucleus is formed or after a genotoxic insult.

The in vitro MN assay in 2011: origin and fate, biological significance, protocols, high throughput methodologies and toxicological relevance

Micronuclei (MN) are small, extranuclear bodies that arise in dividing cells from acentric chromosome/chromatid fragments or whole chromosomes/chromatids lagging behind in anaphase and are not included in the daughter nuclei at telophase. The mechanisms of MN formation are well understood; their possible postmitotic fate is less evident. The MN assay allows detection of both aneugens and clastogens, shows simplicity of scoring, is widely applicable in different cell types, is internationally validated, has potential for automation and is predictive for cancer. The cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay (CBMN) allows assessment of nucleoplasmic bridges, nuclear buds, cell division inhibition, necrosis and apoptosis and in combination with FISH using centromeric probes, the mechanistic origin of the MN. Therefore, the CBMN test can be considered as a "cytome" assay covering chromosome instability, mitotic dysfunction, cell proliferation and cell death. The toxicological relevance of the MN test is strong: it covers several endpoints, its sensitivity is high, its predictivity for in vivo genotoxicity requires adequate selection of cell lines, its statistical power is increased by the recently available high throughput methodologies, it might become a possible candidate for replacing in vivo testing, it allows good extrapolation for potential limits of exposure or thresholds and it is traceable in experimental in vitro and in vivo systems. Implementation of in vitro MN assays in the test battery for hazard and risk assessment of potential mutagens/carcinogens is therefore fully justified.

The nucleolus: structure/function relationship in RNA metabolism

The nucleolus is the ribosome factory of the cells. This is the nuclear domain where ribosomal RNAs are synthesized, processed, and assembled with ribosomal proteins. Here we describe the classical tripartite organization of the nucleolus in mammals, reflecting ribosomal gene transcription and pre-ribosomal RNA (pre-rRNA) processing efficiency: fibrillar center, dense fibrillar component, and granular component. We review the nucleolar organization across evolution from the bipartite organization in yeast to the tripartite organization in humans. We discuss the basic principles of nucleolar assembly and nucleolar structure/function relationship in RNA metabolism. The control of nucleolar assembly is presented as well as the role of pre-existing machineries and pre-rRNAs inherited from the previous cell cycle. In addition, nucleoli carry many essential extra ribosomal functions and are closely linked to cellular homeostasis and human health. The last part of this review presents recent advances in nucleolar dysfunctions in human pathology such as cancer and virus infections that modify the nucleolar organization.

The nucleolus: a model for the organization of nuclear functions

Nucleoli are the prominent contrasted structures of the cell nucleus. In the nucleolus, ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) are synthesized, processed and assembled with ribosomal proteins. The size and organization of the nucleolus are directly related to ribosome production. The organization of the nucleolus reveals the functional compartmentation of the nucleolar machineries that depends on nucleolar activity. When this activity is blocked, disrupted or impossible, the nucleolar proteins have the capacity to interact independently of the processing activity. In addition, nucleoli are dynamic structures in which nucleolar proteins rapidly associate and dissociate with nucleolar components in continuous exchanges with the nucleoplasm. At the time of nucleolar assembly, the processing machineries are recruited in a regulated manner in time and space, controlled by different kinases and form intermediate structures, the prenucleolar bodies. The participation of stable pre-rRNAs in nucleolar assembly was demonstrated after mitosis and during development but this is an intriguing observation since the role of these pre-rRNAs is presently unknown. A brief report on the nucleolus and diseases is proposed as well as of nucleolar functions different from ribosome biogenesis.

Ultrastructure of nuclei of cisplatin-treated C6 glioma cells undergoing apoptosis

C6 glioma cells, treated with a cytostatic dose of cisplatin (1.66 x 10(-5) M) ceased dividing by 24 h and, most of them had undergone apoptosis by 72-96 h. The reactive cells were classified into 5 types (T-I to V), according to the ultrastructure of nuclei. At 4 h, 20.4% of cells (T-I) showed minute condensation and margination of chromatin. The nuclear envelope (NE) formed slim and deep invaginations consisting of the inner or both membranes. The later kind of NE invaginations often extended to the enlarged nucleoli and contained nucleolus-like material at its cytoplasmic side. Some nuclear pores were covered with a dome-shaped "cap" formed by fine filamentous material. The number of T-I cells increased to 53.3% by 72 h. In T-II cells, which appeared at 24 h, the chromatin was condensed into dense irregular masses separated from the NE by a lucent space with filamentous structures preventing complete margination of chromatin. Nucleoli of T-II cells were small and showed partial segregation of their components. The "capped" pores were absent in these apparently more damaged cells. From 24 h, cells with large and lobulated nuclei (T-III) started to increase in number and peaked at 72 h (6.6%). Except for some small lobules, the chromatin of T-III cells was moderately aggregated and the NE was well preserved. Typical apoptotic cells with highly condensed and marginated chromatin (T-IV) peaked at 48-72 h (2.4-4.8%). They appeared in 2 varieties, including cells with wrinkled nuclei with less condensed and incompletely marginated chromatin or more lobulated forms with highly condensed marginated chromatin suggesting their origin from T-II or T-III cells. T-IV cells, as well as their fragments, underwent phagocytosis and secondary necrosis (T-V cells, 48.6% at 96 h). Two alternative routes of nuclear changes leading to cisplatin-triggered apoptosis, as represented by the sequence T-I --> T-III --> T-IV/V or T-I --> T-II --> T-IV/V, may explain the initially less or more damaged cells. These alternatives, together with progressive recruitment of reactive cells, suggest intrapopulation differences in the sensitivity of cells or in the cell cycle perturbations induced by cisplatin. Except for the T-IV and T-V cells, observed alterations of cytoplasmic organelles, including mitochondria, were fewer than reported in previous studies on cisplatin.

Radiation response of cell organelles

The cellular responses to various form of radiation, including ionizing- and UV-irradiation or exposure to electromagnetic fields is manifested as irreversible and reversible structural and functional changes to cells and cell organelles. Moreover, beside the morphological signs related to cell death, there are several reversible alterations in the structure of different cell organelles. The radiation-induced changes in the supramolecular organization of the membranes, including plasma membrane, and different cell organelle membranes, play a significant role in the development of acute radiation injury. These signs of radiation-induced reversible perturbation biological membranes reflect changes in the organization and/or composition of the glycocalix, modified activity and/or distribution of different membrane domains, including enzymes and binding sites. The observed changes of the cell surface micromorphology and the alteration of intercellular connections are closely related to the reorganization of the cytoskeletal elements in the irradiated cells. The mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi-complex, the lysosomal system have long been considered to be direct intracellular targets of irradiation. The listed morphological alterations of nuclear chromatin (e.g. changes of fine structure, altered number of nucleolar organizing regions and micronuclei, development of chromosome aberrations) may originate from the radiation-induced damage to the supramolecular organization of DNA and/or nucleus specific proteins. These endpoints of radiation effects resulted as direct consequence(s) of absorbed radiation energy, and indirectly altered intra-, intercellular communication or modified signal transduction. Some complementary data suggest that all these effects are not strictly specific to radiation and may be best considered as general stress responses, similar to those observed after application of various injurious agents and treatments to cells. Moreover, they may be equally responsible for direct degradation of supramolecular component of cells, altered signal transduction, or changes in the amount or ratio of any extracellular mediators upon irradiation. Nevertheless, qualitative and/or quantitative evaluation of any changes of chromosomes by different techniques (morphological analysis of metaphase chromosomes, fluorescent in situ hybridization, development of micronuclei etc.) are useful biological indicators as well as "biological dosimeters" of radiation injury. It is suggested, that some modern methods such as immunohistochemical detection of different proteins, specific markers of cell organelles and cytoskeleton, inspection of distribution of cell surface charged sites and different membrane domains and application of tracer substances may all be included into protocols for evaluation of cell alterations induced by different types and intensities of radiation.

Spatial organization of large-scale chromatin domains in the nucleus: a magnified view of single chromosome territories

We have analyzed the spatial organization of large scale chromatin domains in chinese hamster fibroblast, human lymphoid (IM-9), and marsupial kidney epithelial (PtK) cells by labeling DNA at defined stages of S phase via pulsed incorporation of halogenated deoxynucleosides. Most, if not all, chromosomes contribute multiple chromatin domains to both peripheral and internal nucleoplasmic compartments. The peripheral compartment contains predominantly late replicating G/Q bands, whereas early replicating R bands preferentially localize to the internal nucleoplasmic compartment. During mitosis, the labeled chromatin domains that were separated in interphase form a pattern of intercalated bands along the length of each metaphase chromosome. The transition from a banded (mitotic) to a compartmentalized (interphasic) organization of chromatin domains occurs during the late telophase/early G1 stage and is independent of transcriptional activation of the genome. Interestingly, generation of micronuclei with a few chromosomes showed that the spatial separation of early and late replicating chromatin compartments is recapitulated independently of chromosome number, even in micronuclei containing only a single chromosome. Our data strongly support the notion that the compartmentalization of large-scale (band size) chromatin domains seen in the intact nucleus is a magnified image of a similar compartmentalization occurring in individual chromosome territories.

The rDNA transcription machinery is assembled during mitosis in active NORs and absent in inactive NORs

In cycling cells, the rDNAs are expressed from telophase to the end of G2 phase. The early resumption of rDNA transcription at telophase raises the question of the fate of the rDNA transcription machinery during mitosis. At the beginning of mitosis, rDNA transcription is arrested, and the rDNAs are clustered in specific chromosomal sites, the nucleolar organizer regions (NOR). In human cells, we demonstrate that the rDNA transcription machinery, as defined in vitro, is colocalized in some NORs and absent from others whatever the mitotic phase: RNA polymerase I and the RNA polymerase I transcription factors, upstream binding factor and promoter selectivity factor (as verified for TATA-binding protein and TATA-binding protein-associated factor for RNA polymerase I [110]), were colocalized in the same NORs. The RNA polymerase I complex was localized using two different antibodies recognizing the two largest subunits or only the third largest subunit, respectively. These two antibodies immunoprecipitated the RNA polymerase I complex in interphase cells as well as in mitotic cells. These results clearly indicated that the RNA polymerase I complex remained assembled during mitosis. In addition, RNA polymerase I and the transcription factors varied in the same proportions in the positive NORs, suggesting stoichiometric association of these components. The fact that the rDNA transcription machinery is not equally distributed among NORs most likely reflects the implication of the different NORs during the subsequent interphase. Indeed, we demonstrate that only positive NORs exhibit transcription activity at telophase and that the level of transcription activity is related to the amount of rDNA transcription machinery present in the NOR. We propose that assembly of rDNA transcription machinery preceding mitosis determines expression of the rDNAs at the beginning of the next cell cycle. Consequently, the association of rDNAs with the rDNA transcription machinery defines the "active" NORs and the level of activity at the transition telophase/interphase.

Induction of micronuclei in plant cells after exposure to accelerated ion irradiation

The root apex cells of Pisum sativum were irradiated in an U-240 isochronous cyclotron at the Institute for Nuclear Research of the Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences, Kyiv. Several types of micronuclei, differing in structural peculiarities, were observed in the 84 h following exposure to beams of accelerated 1H, 4He, and 14N ions with linear energy transfer (LET) of 0.95, 9.34, and 221 keV/microns, respectively. The maximum micronucleus induction was observed after irradiation with helium ions. Results obtained show that the micronucleus assay is a responsive test for investigations of cytogenetic damage produced by high LET beams in dividing cell systems in vivo.

Computer reconstruction of nucleolar architecture by interactive three-dimensional color display

The first complete three dimensional ultrastructural reconstruction of pancreatic cell nucleoli, was done using EM and computer 3D-assisted reconstruction of serial sections with interactive 3D back-to-front and color display methods based on voxel representation. The purpose of the study was to depict the architecture of the nucleolar components. We obtained information about the location of the nucleolus within the nuclear volume and about the shape and polarity of the 3 main nucleolar territories.

Dislocation of chromatin elements in prophase induced by diethylstilbestrol: a novel mechanism by which micronuclei can arise

The in vitro micronucleus test with Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cells assays the induction of micronuclei by chemical agents. Both chromosome fragments and lagging chromosomes can give rise to micronuclei. Nevertheless, only limited information is available on the ultrastructure of micronuclei and the mechanisms of their formation. Diethylstilbestrol (DES), a non-mutagenic carcinogen, as well as its analogue 3.3'-DES induce micronuclei in SHE cells. A comparison of the dose response of DES-induced micronucleus formation with the previously published ones for aneuploidy and transformation shows that all 3 run in parallel. Thus, a functional relationship between these endpoints, in the SHE system, may be implied. The present study is designed to address the formation of micronuclei using supravital UV microscopy, to test for the presence of defined chromosome domains within micronuclei using immunocytochemistry, and to define aspects of their ultrastructure by electron microscopy. Supravital UV microscopy showed that 3.3'-DES induces displacement of chromosomes/chromatids during prophase/anaphase and formation of micronuclei during cytokinesis. Immunocytochemistry revealed that micronuclei contain, at high frequencies, CREST antibody-reactive kinetochores, indicating the presence of whole chromosomes or centric fragments in these structures. Moreover, transmission electron microscopy showed that micronuclei exhibit ultrastructural details typical of interphase nuclei. Specifically, micronuclei exhibited morphological evidence of a nuclear lamina and segregation of karyoplasm into euchromatic and heterochromatic regions. All micronuclei examined were enclosed by a nuclear envelope of normal morphology and showed nuclear pore complexes. Together the findings provide evidence that DES interferes with the mitotic apparatus as early as prophase, resulting in the formation of micronuclei and, as a consequence, in the loss of chromatids or chromosomes.

Functional and dynamic aspects of the mammalian nucleolus

Nucleoli are the sites of ribosome biogenesis. Transcription of the ribosomal RNA genes as well as processing and initial packaging of their transcripts with ribosomal and non-ribosomal proteins all occur within the nucleolus in an ordered manner and under defined topological conditions. Components of the nucleolus have been localized by immunocytochemistry and their functional aspects investigated by microinjection of antibodies directed against the enzyme responsible for rDNA transcription, RNA polymerase I. The role of nascent transcripts in postmitotic formation of nucleoli will be discussed.

Immunocytochemistry of the cell nucleus

This electron microscopic review addresses in situ immunocytochemistry of the mammalian cell nucleus with special reference to the use of autoantibodies, which are the major source of antinuclear antibodies. The localization of many key nuclear antigens is documented and immunocytochemical data are related to the major functional processes of transcription and processing of RNA and to replication of DNA.