The phagocytosis of ROS by RPE cells is inhibited by an antiserum to rat RPE cell plasma membranes

Molecular composition of drusen and possible involvement of anti-retinal autoimmunity in two different forms of macular degeneration in cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis)

We have previously reported a cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis) pedigree with early onset macular degeneration that develops drusen at 2 yr after birth. In this study, the molecular composition of drusen in monkeys affected with late onset and early onset macular degeneration was both characterized. Involvement of anti-retinalautoimmunity in the deposition of drusen and the pathogenesis of the disease was also evaluated. Funduscopic and histological examinations were performed on 278 adult monkeys (mean age=16.94 yr) for late onset macular degeneration. The molecular composition of drusen was analyzed by immunohistochemistry and/or direct proteome analysis using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectroscopy (LC-MS/MS). Anti-retinal autoantibodies in sera were screened in 20 affected and 10 age-matched control monkeys by Western blot techniques. Immunogenic molecules were identified by 2D electrophoresis and LC-MS/MS. Relative antibody titer against each antigen was determined by ELISA in sera from 42 affected (late onset) and 41 normal monkeys. Yellowish-white spots in the macular region were observed in 90 (32%) of the late onset monkeys that were examined. Histological examination demonstrated that drusen or degenerative retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells were associated with the pigmentary abnormalities. Drusen in both late and early onset monkeys showed immunoreactivities for apolipoprotein E, amyloid P component, complement component C5, the terminal C5b-9 complement complex, vitronectin, and membrane cofactor protein. LC-MS/MS analyses identified 60 proteins as constituents of drusen, including a number of common components in drusen of human age-related macular degeneration (AMD), such as annexins, crystallins, immunoglobulins, and complement components. Half of the affected monkeys had single or multiple autoantibodies against 38, 40, 50, and 60 kDa retinal proteins. The reacting antigens of 38 and 40 kDa were identified as annexin II and mu-crystallin, respectively. Relative antibody titer against annexin II in affected monkeys was significantly higher than control animals (P<0.01). Significant difference was not observed in antibody titer against mu-crystallin; however, several affected monkeys showed considerably elevated titer (360-610%) compared with the mean for unaffected animals. Monkey drusen both in late and early onset forms of macular degeneration had common components with drusen in human AMD patients, indicating that chronic inflammation mediated by complement activation might also be involved in the formation of drusen in these affected monkeys. The high prevalence of anti-retinalautoantibodies in sera from affected monkeys demonstrated an autoimmune aspect of the pathogenesis of the disease. Although further analyses are required to determine whether and how autoantibodies against annexin II or mu-crystallin relate to the pathogenesis of the disease, it could be hypothesized that immune responses directed against these antigens might trigger chronic activation of the complement cascade at the site of drusen formation.

Renewal of photoreceptor outer segments and their phagocytosis by the retinal pigment epithelium

The discovery of disc protein renewal in rod outer segments, in 1960s, was followed by the observation that old discs were ingested by the retinal pigment epithelium. This process occurs in both rods and cones and is crucial for their survival. Photoreceptors completely degenerate in the Royal College of Surgeons mutant rat, whose pigment epithelium cannot ingest old discs. The complete renewal process includes the following sequential steps involving both photoreceptor and pigment epithelium activity: new disc assembly and old disc shedding by photoreceptor cells; recognition and binding to pigment epithelium membranes; then ingestion, digestion, and segregation of residual bodies in pigment epithelium cytoplasm. Regulating factors are involved at each step. While disc assembly is mostly genetically controlled, disc shedding and the subsequent pigment epithelium phagocytosis appear regulated by environmental factors (light and temperature). Disc shedding is rhythmically controlled by an eye intrinsic circadian oscillator using endogenous dopamine and melatonin as light and dark signal, respectively. Of special interest is the regulation of phagocytosis by multiple receptors, including specific phagocytosis receptors and receptors for neuroactive substances released from the neuroretina. The candidates for phagocytosis receptors are presented, but it is acknowledged that they are not completely known. The main neuromodulators are adenosine, dopamine, glutamate, serotonin, and melatonin. Although the transduction mechanisms are not fully understood, attention was brought to cyclic AMP, phosphoinositides, and calcium. The chapter points to the multiplicity of regulating factors and the complexity of their intermingling modes of action. Promising areas for future research still exist in this field.

Mannose receptor is expressed in normal and dystrophic retinal pigment epithelium

In normal retinas, the phagocytosis of shed photoreceptor outer segments is mediated in part through a mannose receptor protein located in the apical retinal pigment epithelium membrane. As dystrophic rats of the Royal College of Surgeons have a defect in which the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is unable to phagocytize the shed outer segments, it is hypothesized that mannose receptor expression will be lost with the progression of photoreceptor degeneration. Immunohistochemical and molecular techniques have been used to study the developmental expression of the mannose receptor in normal and dystrophic retinal pigment epithelium. By immunofluorescence, the mannose receptor is localized to the retinal pigment epithelium, apical membrane region, beginning around 5 days postnatally in both normal and dystrophic retinas. In immunoblots, bands at 175 kDa are labelled by an anti-mannose receptor antibody in apical membrane samples from both normal and dystrophic RPE at all developmental times sampled. RT-PCR analysis reveals that mannose receptor message is present in normal and dystrophic RPE samples at all developmental time points examined. The present study demonstrates that the expression of the mannose receptor begins prior to outer segment differentiation and the initiation of phagocytosis in both normal and dystrophic RPE. Expression of the mannose receptor continues to be unchanged during the progression of photoreceptor degeneration in the dystrophic retina.

Temperature-sensitive interactions between RPE and rod outer segment surface proteins

Phagocytosis of rod outer segments by the retinal pigment epithelium is distinguished by the two distinct temperature-dependent steps of binding and ingestion. This study was designed to see if retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) plasma membrane proteins interact with ROS plasma membrane proteins at temperatures favoring either binding or ingestion. A modified blot overlay assay was used whereby Western blots of RPE plasma membrane proteins were overlaid with biotinylated ROS plasma membrane proteins. RPE/ROS interactions were detected by streptavidin-HRP and the ECL method at 25 degrees C (ingestion), 15 degrees C (binding), and 4 degrees C (little or no binding or ingestion). Unlabeled ROS proteins served as the negative control. Competition with excess unlabeled ROS proteins were used to test the specificity of the protein interactions. Some protein interactions were somewhat temperature dependent. For example, two RPE plasma membrane proteins (200 kDa and 173 kDa) interacted with ROS plasma membrane proteins at both 25 degrees C and 15 degrees C, but not at 4 degrees C. A strongly labeled protein at 50 kDA protein was present at 25 degrees C but weakly labeled at 15 degrees C and at 4 degrees C. Other protein interaction were more clearly temperature dependent. For example, a 110 kDa RPE protein interacted with ROS proteins only at 25 degrees C. Another RPE protein (55 kDa) interacted only at 15 degrees C. These latter data provide correlations between binding events in the assay and previously described stages of phagocytosis.

Inherited retinal degeneration: basic FGF induces phagocytic competence in cultured RPE cells from RCS rats

In RCS rats, the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is defective in phagocytosis of photoreceptor membranes. We have previously shown reduced expression of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) in the RPE of 7-10-day-old RCS rats. This study using primary RPE cultures from rats of this age demonstrates that the phagocytic defect in the mutant RPE can be overcome by treatment with bFGF, by a mechanism involving gene transcription and that normal RPE phagocytosis, also requiring transcription, is blocked by a bFGF neutralizing antibody. The combined data point to a role for bFGF in the normal mechanism of RPE phagocytosis and the RCS defect.

CD36 participates in the phagocytosis of rod outer segments by retinal pigment epithelium

Mechanisms of phagocytosis are complex and incompletely understood. The retinal pigment epithelium provides an ideal system to study the specific aspects of phagocytosis since an important function of this cell is the ingestion of packets of membranous discs that are normally discarded at the apical ends of rod and cone cells during outer segment renewal. Here we provide evidence that rod outer segment phagocytosis by retinal pigment epithelium is mediated by CD36, a transmembrane glycoprotein which has been previously characterized on hematopoietic cells as a receptor for apoptotic neutrophils and oxidized low density lipoprotein. Immunocytochemical staining with monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies demonstrated CD36 expression by both human and rat retinal pigment epithelium in transverse cryostat sections of normal retina and in primary cultured cells. By western blot analysis of retinal pigment epithelial cell lysates, polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies to CD36 recognized an 88 kDa protein which comigrated with platelet CD36. Furthermore, the synthesis of CD36 mRNA by retinal pigment epithelium was confirmed by reverse transcriptase-PCR using specific CD36 oligonucleotides. The addition of CD36 antibodies to cultured retinal pigment epithelial cells reduced the binding and internalization of 125I-labeled rod outer segments by 60%. Immunofluorescence confocal microscopy confirmed that outer segment uptake was significantly diminished by an antibody to CD36. Moreover, we found that transfection of a human melanoma cell line with CD36 cDNA enabled these cells to bind and internalize isolated photoreceptor outer segments as seen by double immunofluorescent staining for surface bound and total cell-associated rod outer segments, and by measurement of cell-associated 125I-labeled rod outer segments. We conclude that the multifunctional scavenger receptor CD36 participates in the clearance of photoreceptor outer segments by retinal pigment epithelium and thus, participates in the visual process.

Natural, high-mannose glycoproteins inhibit ROS binding and ingestion by RPE cell cultures

Previous studies have suggested that a mannose receptor mediates the phagocytic uptake of effete rod outer segments by retinal pigment epithelial cells. In the present study, the effect of adding a soluble ligand for the mannose receptor, horseradish peroxidase, was examined. Cultured retinal pigment epithelial cells from Long Evans rats were preincubated with various concentrations of horseradish peroxidase for 20 min followed by a challenge of FITC-labeled bovine rod outer segments for 3 h. Both counts of total rod outer segments (bound and ingested) and ingested rod outer segments were determined. Rod outer segment uptake was reduced, in a concentration-dependent fashion, by an average of 60% of control values when horseradish peroxidase was added to retinal pigment epithelial cultures. Similarly, total rod outer segment values were reduced to 50% of controls in the presence of at least a 10 micrograms ml-1 horseradish peroxidase concentration. Horseradish peroxidase inhibition of retinal pigment epithelial phagocytic capacity was reversible. Other high mannose glycoproteins, such as invertase, beta-glucoronidase, and ovalbumin, were equally effective in preventing rod outer segment ingestion by retinal pigment epithelial cells. These data further support the hypothesis that a mannose receptor on the retinal pigment epithelial apical surface facilitates phagocytosis of rod outer segments.

Potassium currents in cultured cells of the rat retinal pigment epithelium

Whole-cell currents were investigated in cultured rat retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells. Two voltage-dependent conductances were discriminated. First, at potentials more positive than -30 mV, a time-dependent outward current was activated. Inhibition by Ba2+ (10 mM) and 4-aminopyridine (10 mM) indicated that this current was carried by potassium ions. This current showed no inactivation during 5 sec depolarizations. Second, an inward current, sensitive to Ba2+ (10 mM) and 4-aminopyridine (10 mM), was activated at potentials more negative than -70 mV. Under extra- and intracellular potassium-free conditions, both currents disappeared. In summary, cultured rat RPE cells expressed one potassium conductance similar to the delayed rectifier and one similar to the inward rectifier. The delayed rectifier expressed characteristics comparable with those known in mammalian species and different from those in non-mammalian species.

Cultured retinal pigment epithelial cells from RCS rats express an increased calcium conductance compared with cells from non-dystrophic rats

The Royal College of Surgeon (RCS) rats suffer from a retinal dystrophy that is caused by a malfunction of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). We compared the membrane currents of cultured RPE cells from non-dystrophic and RCS rats by using the whole-cell configuration of the patch-clamp technique. Cultured RPE cells from RCS rats showed voltage-dependent, barium- and 4-aminopyridine-sensitive outward currents, which had characteristics of the delayed-rectifier and voltage-dependent, barium- and 4-aminopyridine-sensitive inward currents, which had characteristics of the inward rectifier. Differences between RPE cells from RCS rats and normal rats were as follows. (a) Cultured RCS rat RPE cells showed a resting potential and an activation threshold for the voltage-dependent outward current significantly more positive than that found in cells from non-dystrophic rats. (b) In the presence of 10 mM barium, the voltage-dependent outward current was reduced in both types of cells; in cells from RCS rats, an additional voltage-dependent inward current was observed. (c) This additional inward current had characteristics of L-type calcium channels and was reduced by verapamil (30 microM) and diltiazem (30 microM). In summary, we conclude that the membrane conductances of RPE cells from normal and RCS rats are dominated by potassium conductances. In contrast to cells from non-dystrophic rats, cells of RCS rats expressed an increased membrane conductance for calcium.