Androgen sensitivity of skeletal muscle: nondependence on the motor nerve in the frog forearm

Prolonged relaxation after stimulation of the clasping muscle of male frog, Rana japonica, during the breeding season

We investigated the mechanical properties of the flexor carpi radialis muscle (FCR), a forelimb muscle used mainly for amplexus in the breeding season (February to March), of the male Japanese brown frog, Rana japonica. In the present experiment, the changes in force and stiffness of the FCR before, during, and after contraction were measured at 4 degrees C. The total time from the end of stimulation to the end of relaxation was about 30 min. The time course of this prolonged relaxation was fitted by two exponential decay processes. Stiffness decreased during prolonged relaxation, but stayed higher than force, when normalized to peak values. These mechanical properties of the FCR were different from those of the glutaeus magnus muscle (GM) in the hindlimb, used for jumping. When a quick release was applied to the FCR during relaxation, the force recovered gradually after a sudden decrease. The time course of this force recovery was fitted by a single exponential term, and the rate constant decreased as the prolonged relaxation proceeded. The possible involvement of active process(es) in the prolonged relaxation is discussed.

Androgen dependent seasonal changes in muscle fiber type in the dewlap neuromuscular system of green anoles

Green anoles (Anolis carolinensis) possess two sexually dimorphic neuromuscular systems involved in reproductive behaviors. One controls extension of a red throat fan (dewlap), which males employ during courtship, and the other controls intromission of copulatory organs (hemipenes). Although seasonal changes in circulating androgens mediate both courtship and copulatory behaviors, testosterone has differential effects on the underlying neuromuscular morphology. The present experiments were designed to test whether changes in muscle fiber type correspond to seasonal and androgenic regulation of reproductive behaviors in gonadally intact males (Experiment 1) or castrated males treated with either testosterone propionate or vehicle (Experiment 2). Gonadally intact males housed in breeding environmental conditions had a higher percentage of fast oxidative glycolytic fibers in the dewlap muscle than non-breeding males, but no effect of season on copulatory fibers was detected. Interestingly, testosterone treatment increased the percentage of fast oxidative glycolytic dewlap fibers independent of season, suggesting that routine changes in this hormone may mediate fiber type in gonadally intact males. In contrast, testosterone manipulation had little to no effect on copulatory muscle fiber type, demonstrating that a change in this feature is not the primary mediator for seasonal changes in male copulatory behaviors.

Season and testosterone affect contractile properties of fast calling muscles in the gray tree frog Hyla chrysoscelis

In anurans, circulating levels of androgens influence certain secondary sexual characteristics that are expressed only during the breeding season. We studied the contractile properties of external oblique muscles (used to power sound production) in a species of North American gray tree frog, Hyla chrysoscelis, during the breeding season and also in testosterone-treated captive males and females after the breeding season. Compared with the muscles of breeding-season males, the trunk muscles of postbreeding-season males have 50% less mass, 60% longer twitches, and 40% slower shortening velocities. Testosterone levels similar to those found in breeding-season male hylid frogs restore the contractile speed and mass of male trunk muscles and also convert the small slow trunk muscles of females into larger fast-contracting muscles. We conclude that androgens likely play a key role in altering the contractile properties of these muscles in males during the annual cycle, allowing them to operate in the breeding season at the frequencies required to produce the characteristic rapidly pulsed calls of this species. Females as well as nonbreeding-season males do not produce advertising calls, and therefore the slower muscles found in these animals may allow more economic operation of these muscles. The effects of testosterone on female trunk muscles indicate the potential of this hormone in contributing to the sexual dimorphism in size and contractile properties of these muscles, but this dimorphism is likely due to the interaction of more than one hormone.

Effects of castration and androgen treatment on androgen-receptor levels in rat skeletal muscles

The effects of castration and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) treatment on levels of skeletal muscle androgen receptor (AR) were examined in three groups of adult male rats: 1) intact normal rats, 2) rats castrated at 16 wk of age, and 3) rats castrated at 16 wk of age and given DHT for 1 wk starting at week 17. All animals were killed at 18 wk of age. Castration caused a decrease (P < 0.05) in the weights of the levator ani and bulbocavernosus muscles. The administration of DHT to the castrated rats increased (P < 0.05) the weights of the levator ani and bulbocavernosus muscles. Castration caused a significant downregulation of AR levels in the bulbocavernosus (P < 0.05) but had no significant effect on AR levels in the levator ani muscle. DHT administration to the castrated group upregulated AR levels in the bulbocavernosus and levator ani muscles. The plantaris muscle did not significantly (P > 0.05) change for any of the treatments. These findings suggest that the effects of castration and androgen replacement differentially affect skeletal muscle mass and AR levels.

Effects of testosterone administration and castration on the forelimb musculature of male leopard frogs, Rana pipiens

In Rana pipiens, forelimb muscles that are used by males to clasp females during amplexus are sexually dimorphic in mass, protein content, and fiber composition. This experiment examined the effects of castration and exogenous testosterone on wet mass, dry mass, and protein content of the 22 major forelimb muscles of male leopard frogs to determine whether established patterns of sexual dimorphism of the muscles are reflected in differential androgen sensitivity. Muscles ranged from highly and moderately responsive to testosterone treatment (e.g., flexors of the elbow and of the carpus; adductors of the shoulder and of the first digit) to nonresponsive to testosterone (antagonists to these muscles). The mean dry mass of the testosterone-responsive muscles ranged broadly from 28-164% over control values. Castration had little or no effect on the response to testosterone, nor did it affect muscle mass in frogs not treated with hormone, as compared to sham-operated animals. Experimental treatment did not alter water content or protein concentration of muscles. The degree of testosterone sensitivity exhibited among the muscles of males closely correlated with their degree of sexual dimorphism. We postulate that androgens influence the functional attributes of male forelimb muscles through both organizational and activational effects.

Androgen regulation of neuromuscular junction structure and function in a sexually dimorphic muscle of the frog Xenopus laevis

Specific forelimb muscles in anurans are sexually dimorphic and underlie the androgen-dependent clasping response of males during amplexus. Previous studies have reported that androgen treatment slows the contractile properties of these sexually dimorphic forelimb muscles. In amphibians, the expression of functionally distinct acetylcholine (ACh) receptors, the levels of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), the extent of multiple innervation, and the structure of individual end plates vary with the contractile properties of the muscle fibers. In higher vertebrates, androgens have been reported to alter the expression of ACh receptors, AChE, and the neuromodulator, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP). To determine whether the known androgen-dependent changes in contraction of androgen-sensitive forelimb muscles are accompanied by concomitant changes in synaptic structure or function, we have compared functional neuromuscular transmission, the pattern of innervation, and CGRP immunoreactivity in nerve or muscle preparations from castrated (C) and castrated and testosterone-treated (CT) adult male Xenopus laevis. CGRP expression in androgen receptor (AR)-immunopositive neurons was increased in CT animals. However, no significant differences were found in ACh-mediated single channel or macroscopic currents, the extent of multiple end plates, or end plate morphology for forelimb fibers isolated from C and CT Xenopus. In contrast, analysis of forelimb fibers from gonadally intact adult females and juvenile animals of both sexes revealed that macroscopic synaptic currents were significantly shorter in these animals than in either C or CT adult males. Our data suggest that forelimb fibers in sexually dimorphic muscles of Xenopus do show significant differences in synaptic transmission; however, neither end-plate organization nor functional neuromuscular transmission are subject to activational effects of androgens in adult male frogs.

Effects of testosterone on synaptic efficacy at neuromuscular junctions in a sexually dimorphic muscle of male frogs

1. The effects of testosterone on synaptic efficacy were studied in the flexor carpi radialis, a sexually dimorphic forelimb muscle involved in frog clasping behaviour. Male Xenopus laevis frogs were castrated and then given either testosterone-filled implants (CT frogs) or empty implants (C frogs) for 2, 8 or 16 weeks. 2. Intracellular recordings were made from fibres in the shoulder region and in a region midway between the elbow and wrist. These regions are mainly innervated by spinal nerve 2 (SN2) and spinal nerve 3 (SN3), respectively. 3. In CT muscles, the percentage of fibres that failed to generate an action potential in response to a single nerve stimulus was greater than in C muscles. The percentage of such fibres was greater among SN2 fibres than among SN3 fibres. 4. The input resistance and membrane time constant were lower in CT muscles than in C muscles for SN2 fibres but not for SN3 fibres. The action potential threshold was lower in CT muscles than in C muscles. In SN2 fibres, the action potential threshold was higher than in SN3 fibres. 5. Quantal content with 1 Hz nerve stimulation and miniature endplate potential (MEPP) frequency did not differ between CT and C junctions. However, both parameters were lower at SN2 junctions than at SN3 junctions. The amplitude of MEPPs was lower in CT muscles than in C muscles only for SN2 junctions. 6. Facilitation of transmitter release with 70 or 10 Hz nerve stimulation was greater at CT junctions than at C junctions. Also, SN2 junctions showed greater facilitation than SN3 junctions. 7. We hypothesize that the more androgen-sensitive SN2 junctions, which have lower quantal content and greater facilitation, belong to motor units that are tonically active, fatigue resistant, and contract more slowly. The less androgen-sensitive SN3 junctions, which have higher quantal content and less facilitation, may belong to motor units that are phasically active, fatigable and contract more rapidly. Testosterone enhances these differences such that flexor carpi radialis junctions are better adapted to the functional demands of clasping.

Effects of testosterone on a sexually dimorphic frog muscle: repeated in vivo observations and androgen receptor distribution

In the present study the sexually dimorphic, androgen-sensitive flexor carpi radialis muscle (FCR) in male Xenopus laevis was viewed repeatedly in vivo to assess the influence of testosterone on muscle fiber size over a period of up to 12 weeks. Regions of the muscle innervated by different spinal nerves responded differently to testosterone treatment. Muscle fibers innervated by spinal nerve 2 (SN2) hypertrophied within 7 days in frogs that had been castrated and given testosterone-filled implants. This initial hypertrophy was followed by a return to normal fiber size a week later, after which fiber size slowly increased again. In castrated males with empty implants, muscle fibers innervated by SN2 gradually atrophied. Fibers innervated by spinal nerve 3 (SN3) were not affected by androgen replacement or withdrawal. The sartorius, a control muscle that is neither sexually dimorphic nor particularly androgen sensitive, was also unaffected. The in vivo observations were confirmed by measurements of muscle fiber cross-sectional areas in frozen sections of whole forelimbs. At 8 and 12 weeks after castration, cross-sectional areas of fibers innervated by SN2 were significantly larger in frogs provided with testosterone than in castrates without testosterone. No difference was found in the SN3 region or in the anconeus caput scapulare (triceps), another control muscle. Immunocytochemistry employing an antibody against the androgen receptor (AR) indicated that the receptor is present in myonuclei of all muscles of the forelimb. While no difference in labeling intensity was detected, the number of AR-containing nuclei per muscle fiber cross-section was higher in fibers innervated by SN2 than in those innervated by SN3, and was yet lower in the triceps. This suggests that regulation of androgen sensitivity may occur via muscle fiber ARs, although an influence of the nerve may also contribute.

Differential sensitivity to androgens within a sexually dimorphic muscle of male frogs (Xenopus laevis)

Male frogs use their forelimb flexor muscles to clasp females during the mating behavior known as amplexus. We investigated the effects of testosterone on a principal forelimb flexor, the flexor carpi radialis muscle (FCR), using morphological and histochemical techniques. Male Xenopus laevis were surgically manipulated to produce high or low levels of circulating testosterone for an 8-week period. After this treatment, measurement of fibers in muscle cross-sections revealed that average fiber size was positively correlated with testosterone level. This effect was not the same for all muscle fibers, however. Fibers in the shoulder region were more sensitive to testosterone than fibers in other regions of the muscle. Histochemical staining of cross-sections showed that the patterns of staining for myosin ATPase or succinic dehydrogenase (SDH) were not influenced by testosterone levels, but total SDH activity was increased by testosterone treatment. When sensitivity to testosterone was correlated with ATPase activity, fibers with high ATPase activity were found to be more sensitive to testosterone than fibers with low activity, regardless of position within the muscle. Most fibers with high ATPase activity were located in the shoulder region of the muscle. These fibers are innervated by different motor axons than are fibers in the elbow region of the muscle, and contractions of shoulder (but not elbow) region fibers, elicited by stimulation of motor axons, are slowed by testosterone treatment (Regnier and Herrera, 1993, J. Physiol. 461:565-581).

Changes in contractile properties by androgen hormones in sexually dimorphic muscles of male frogs (Xenopus laevis)

1. Male frogs (Xenopus laevis) were castrated then given either empty or testosterone-filled implants to produce animals with low or high levels of circulating testosterone. Eight weeks later the contractile properties of an androgen-sensitive forelimb flexor, the flexor carpi radialis muscle (FCR), were measured in vitro. Another forelimb flexor muscle, the coracoradialis, and a hindlimb muscle, the iliofibularis, were analysed similarly. 2. Plasma testosterone levels were 0.9 +/- 0.3 ng/ml (+/- S.E.M.) in castrated frogs with blank implants (C) and 61.3 +/- 4.7 ng/ml in castrates with testosterone implants (CT). Unoperated males, sampled at various times of the year, ranged between 10.8 and 51.0 ng/ml. 3. With direct electrical stimulation of the FCR, contraction time of the isometric twitch was not affected by testosterone levels. Relaxation times were affected, however. Half- and 90% relaxation times were 27 and 42% longer, respectively, for CT compared to C muscles. 4. Testosterone also had no effect on the contraction time of twitches elicited by stimulation of the FCR nerve. Half- and 90% relaxation times were 51 and 76% longer, respectively, for CT compared to C muscles. 5. Tetanus tension, elicited by direct stimulation of the FCR at 50 Hz, was 86% greater in CT compared to C muscles. The average cross-sectional area of FCR muscle fibres was 84% greater in CT muscles. These results implied that testosterone treatment had no effect on specific muscle tension. 6. Stimulation of the FCR nerve at 50 Hz resulted in 53% less tension than the same stimulus applied directly to CT muscles. In C muscles the difference was only 14%. This suggested that testosterone treatment reduced synaptic efficacy. 7. In CT muscles, direct or nerve stimulation of fibres in the shoulder region of the FCR elicited twitches that contracted and relaxed more slowly than fibres in the elbow region. In C muscles there was no difference in contraction or relaxation time between fibres in the shoulder and elbow regions. 8. Testosterone treatment had little effect on contraction and relaxation times or tension levels of coracoradialis or iliofibularis muscles.

The MRL +/+ mouse: a new model of tubular aggregates which are gender- and age-related

Congenic mice of the MRL +/+ substrain provide an animal model for study of tubular aggregates in skeletal muscle. Tubular aggregates appear limited only to males of the MRL +/+ strain and are not found in other strains, including MRL +/-, MRL lpr/lpr, BXSB/MpJ, BALB/c, SJL/J, AJ, or C3H HEJ. This strain-specific occurrence, and the gradually increasing abundance of tubular aggregates after 6 months of age until virtually all type II myofibers are affected by 2 years, implies that both genetic and developmental factors are necessary for the occurrence of tubular aggregates. These two factors are not sufficient, however, since hormonal alteration by male castration nearly completely prevents the expression of tubular aggregates. Parallels are drawn with how expression of tubular aggregates is limited largely to males in diverse acquired and hereditary human neuromuscular disorders.

Structural and functional analysis of murine skeletal muscle after castration

A previous histochemical and morphometric study demonstrated that castration caused a significant decrease in myofiber and muscle size in the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles of male ReJ 129 mice. The objective of the present study was to examine the effects of castration on the morphology and physiology of the EDL. Muscle wet weight was significantly decreased in the castrated group. The morphological survey demonstrated a significant degree of degeneration in the EDL muscles from castrated animals, consisting of disruption of normal myofilament arrangement and necrosis, invasion of active macrophages, and atrophic myofibers. These findings were significantly correlated with the decrease in peak tension observed in the castrated groups. No significant difference was detected in the time to peak tension and half-relaxation time in the castrated groups compared with the control. Thus, alterations of the morphological integrity and myofiber size of skeletal muscle affect muscle strength in castrated animals.