Phylloquinone copurifies with the large subunit of photosystem I

5'-monohydroxyphylloquinone is the dominant naphthoquinone of PSI in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Thylakoid membranes contain two types of quinones, benzoquinone (plastoquinone) and naphthoquinone, which are involved in photosynthetic electron transfer. Unlike the benzoquinone, the chemical species of naphthoquinone present (phylloquinone, menaquinone-4 and 5'-monohydroxyphylloquinone) varies depending on the oxygenic photosynthetic organisms. The green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii has been used as a model organism to study the function of the naphthoquinone bound to PSI. However, the level of phylloquinone and the presence of other naphthoquinones in this organism remain unknown. In the present study, we found that 5'-monohydroxyphylloquinone is the predominant naphthoquinone in cell and thylakoid extracts based on the retention time during reverse phase HPLC, absorption and mass spectrometry measurements. It was shown that 5'-monohydroxyphylloquinone is enriched 2.5-fold in the PSI complex as compared with thylakoid membranes but that it is absent from PSI-deficient mutant cells. We also found a small amount of phylloquinone in the cells and in the PSI complex and estimated that accumulated 5'-monohydroxyphylloquinone and phylloquinone account for approximately 90 and 10%, respectively, of the total naphthoquinone content. The ratio of these two naphthoquinones remained nearly constant in the cells and in the PSI complexes from logarithmic and stationary cell growth stages. We conclude that both 5'-monohydroxyphylloquinone and phylloquinone stably co-exist as major and minor naphthoquinones in Chlamydomonas PSI.

An overview on chlorophylls and quinones in the photosystem I-type reaction centers

Minor but key chlorophylls (Chls) and quinones in photosystem (PS) I-type reaction centers (RCs) are overviewed in regard to their molecular structures. In the PS I-type RCs, the prime-type chlorophylls, namely, bacteriochlorophyll (BChl) a' in green sulfur bacteria, BChl g' in heliobacteria, Chl a' in Chl a-type PS I, and Chl d' in Chl d-type PS I, function as the special pairs, either as homodimers, (BChl a')(2) and (BChl g')(2) in anoxygenic organisms, or heterodimers, Chl a/a' and Chl d/d' in oxygenic photosynthesis. Conversions of BChl g to Chl a and Chl a to Chl d take place spontaneously under mild condition in vitro. The primary electron acceptors, A (0), are Chl a-derivatives even in anoxygenic PS I-type RCs. The secondary electron acceptors are naphthoquinones, whereas the side chains may have been modified after the birth of cyanobacteria, leading to succession from menaquinone to phylloquinone in oxygenic PS I.

Charge-transfer complexes of plastoquinone and alpha-tocopherol quinone in vitro

It has been found that plastoquinone (PQ) and alpha-tocopherol quinone (alpha-TQ) can form quinhydrone-type charge-transfer complexes on PQH2 and alpha-TQH2, respectively, both in the crystalline state and in solutions of organic solvents. The charge-transfer spectra of PQ/PQH2 mixtures in hydrophobic solvents showed two bands: one at 349-358 nm, the other at 430-440 nm, one charge-transfer band at 351-355 nm occurring in water-miscible solvents. The intensity ratio of these two bands varied with changing PQ/PQH2 ratio. The charge-transfer spectra of alpha-TQ/alpha-TQH2 mixtures in all solvents investigated showed one peak at 361-367 nm and a broad shoulder within the range 400-540 nm, whose shape varied depending on the solvent used. In the infrared spectrum of PQ and alpha-TQ (1700-1600 cm(-1)) splitting of the carbonyl band occurred and was caused by the presence of two peak. In the spectra of quinhydrones the splitting disappeared, this being brought about by the appearance of a new peak at the position of splitting, which originated from the complexed quinones. The possibility of the formation of such complexes in thylakoid membranes is discussed.

The AAE14 gene encodes the Arabidopsis o-succinylbenzoyl-CoA ligase that is essential for phylloquinone synthesis and photosystem-I function

Phylloquinone is the one-electron carrier at the A(1) site of photosystem I, and is essential for photosynthesis. Arabidopsis mutants deficient in early steps of phylloquinone synthesis do not become autotrophic and are seedling lethals, even when grown on sucrose-supplemented media. Here, we identify acyl-activating enzyme 14 (AAE14, At1g30520) as the o-succinylbenzoyl-coenzyme A (OSB-CoA) ligase acting in phylloquinone synthesis. Three aae14 mutant alleles, identified by reverse genetics, were found to be seedling lethal, to contain no detectable phylloquinone (< 0.1 pmol mg(-1) fresh weight) compared with 10 pmol mg(-1) fresh weight in wild-type leaves, and to accumulate OSB. AAE14 was able to restore menaquinone biosynthesis when expressed in an Escherichia coli mutant disrupted in the menE gene that encodes the bacterial OSB-CoA ligase. Weak expression of an AAE14 transgene in mutant plants (controlled by the uninduced XVE promoter) resulted in chlorotic, slow-growing plants that accumulated an average of 4.7 pmol mg(-1) fresh weight of phylloquinone. Inducing the XVE promoter in these plants, or expressing an AAE14 transgene under the control of the CaMV 35S promoter, led to full complementation of the mutant phenotype. aae14-mutant plants were also able to synthesize phylloquinone when provided with 1,4-dihydroxy-2-naphthoate, an intermediate in phylloquinone synthesis downstream of the OSB-CoA ligase reaction. Expression of an AAE14:GFP reporter construct indicated that the protein accumulated in discrete foci within the chloroplasts. This and other evidence suggests that the enzymes of phylloquinone synthesis from isochorismate may form a complex in the chloroplast stroma to facilitate the efficient channeling of intermediates through the pathway.

Multiple Rieske proteins in prokaryotes: where and why?

Many microbial genomes have been sequenced in the recent years. Multiple genes encoding Rieske iron-sulfur proteins, which are subunits of cytochrome bc-type complexes or oxygenases, have been detected in many pro- and eukaryotic genomes. The diversity of substrates, co-substrates and reactions offers obvious explanations for the diversity of the low potential Rieske proteins associated with oxygenases, but the physiological significance of the multiple genes encoding high potential Rieske proteins associated with the cytochrome bc-type complexes remains elusive. For some organisms, investigations into the function of the later group of genes have been initiated. Here, we summarize recent finding on the characteristics and physiological functions of multiple high potential Rieske proteins in prokaryotes. We suggest that the existence of multiple high potential Rieske proteins in prokaryotes could be one way of allowing an organism to adapt their electron transfer chains to changing environmental conditions.

Inactivation and deficiency of core proteins of photosystems I and II caused by genetical phylloquinone and plastoquinone deficiency but retained lamellar structure in a T-DNA mutant of Arabidopsis

Phylloquinone, a substituted 1,4-naphthoquinone with an 18-carbon-saturated phytyl tail, functions as a bound one-electron carrier cofactor at the A1 site of photosystem I (PSI). A Feldmann tag line mutant, no. 2755 (designated as abc4 hereafter), showed pale-green young leaves and white old leaves. The mutated nuclear gene encoded 1,4-dihydroxy-2-naphtoic acid phytyltransferase, an enzyme of phylloquinone biosynthesis, and high-performance liquid chromatography analysis revealed that the abc4 mutant contained no phylloquinone, and only about 3% plastoquinone. Photooxidation of P700 of PSI in the abc4 mutant was not observed, and reduced-versus-oxidized difference spectroscopy indicated that the abc4 mutant had no P700. The maximum quantum yield of photosystem II (PSII) in the abc4 mutant was much decreased, and the electron transfer from PSII to PSI in the abc4 mutant did not occur. For the pale-green leaves of the abc4 mutant plant, the ultrastructure of the chloroplasts was almost the same as that of the wild-type plant. However, the chloroplasts in the albino leaves of the mutant were smaller and had a lot of grana thylakoids and few stroma thylakoids. The amounts of PSI and PSII core subunits in the abc4 mutant were significantly decreased compared with those in the wild type. These results suggested that a deficiency of phylloquinone in PSI caused the abolishment of PSI and a partial defect of PSII due to a significant decrease of plastoquinone, but did not influence the ultrastructure of the chloroplasts in young leaves.

Quenching of excited states of chlorophyll molecules in submembrane fractions of Photosystem I by exogenous quinones

The ability of three substituted quinones, 2,5-dibromo-3-methyl-6-isopropyl-p-benzoquinone (DBMIB), 2,6-dichloro-p-benzoquinone (DCBQ), and tetramethyl-p-benzoquinone (duriquinone) to quench the excited states of chlorophyll (Chl) molecules in Photosystem I (PSI) was studied. Chl fluorescence emission measured with isolated PSI submembrane fractions was reduced following the addition of exogenous quinones. This quenching progressively increased with rising concentrations of the exogenous quinones according to the Stern-Volmer law. The values of Stern-Volmer quenching coefficients were found to be 3.28 x 10(5) M(-1) (DBMIB), 1.31 x 10(4) M(-1) (DCBQ), and 3.7 x 10(3) M(-1) (duroquinone). The relative quenching capacities of the various exogenous quinones in PSI thus strictly coincided to those found for the quenching of Fo level of Chl fluorescence in isolated thylakoids, which is emitted largely by Photosystem II (PSII) [Biochim. Biophys. Acta (2003) 1604, 115-123]. Quenching of Chl excited states in PSI submembrane fractions by exogenous quinones slowed down the rate of P700, primary electron donor of PSI, photooxidation measured at limiting actinic light irradiances thus revealing a reduced photochemical capacity of absorbed quanta. The possible involvement of non-photochemical quenching of excited Chl states by oxidized phylloquinones, electron acceptors of PSI, and oxidized plastoquinones, mobile electron carriers between PSII and the cytochrome b(6)/f complex, into the control of photochemical activity of PSI is discussed.

Reversed-phase HPLC determination of chlorophyll a' and naphthoquinones in photosystem I of red algae: existence of two menaquinone-4 molecules in photosystem I of Cyanidium caldarium

Chlorophyll (Chl) a', the C13(2)-epimer of Chl a, is one of the two Chl molecules constituting the primary electron donor (P700) of photosystem (PS) I of a thermophilic cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus. To examine whether PS I of other oxygenic photosynthetic organisms in general contain one Chl a' molecule in P700, the pigment composition of thylakoid membranes and PS I preparations isolated from red algae Porphyridium purpureum and Cyanidium caldarium was examined by reversed-phase HPLC with particular attention to Chl a' and phylloquinone (PhQ), the secondary electron acceptor of PS I. The two red algae contained one Chl a' molecule at the core part of PS I. In PS I of C. caldarium, two menaquinone-4 (MQ-4) molecules were detected in place of PhQ used by higher plants and cyanobacteria. The 1:2:1 stoichiometry among Chl a', PhQ (MQ-4) and P700 in PS I of the red algae indicates that one Chl a' molecule universally exists in PS I of oxygenic photosynthetic organisms, and two MQ-4 molecules are associated with PS I of C. caldarium.

The menD and menE homologs code for 2-succinyl-6-hydroxyl-2,4-cyclohexadiene-1-carboxylate synthase and O-succinylbenzoic acid-CoA synthase in the phylloquinone biosynthetic pathway of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

The genome of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 contains genes identified as menD and menE, homologs of Escherichia coli genes that code for 2-succinyl-6-hydroxyl-2,4-cyclohexadiene-1-carboxylate (SHCHC) synthase and O-succinylbenzoic acid-CoA ligase in the menaquinone biosynthetic pathway. In cyanobacteria, the product of this pathway is 2-methyl-3-phytyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (phylloquinone), a molecule used exclusively as an electron transfer cofactor in Photosystem (PS) I. The menD(-) and menE(-) strains were generated, and both were found to lack phylloquinone. Hence, no alternative pathways exist in cyanobacteria to produce O-succinylbenzoyl-CoA. Q-band EPR studies of photoaccumulated quinone anion radical and optical kinetic studies of the P700(+) [F(A)/F(B)](-) backreaction indicate that in the mutant strains, plastoquinone-9 functions as the electron transfer cofactor in the A(1) site of PS I. At a light intensity of 40 microE m(-2) s(-1), the menD(-) and menE(-) mutant strains grew photoautotrophically and photoheterotrophically, but with doubling times slower than the wild type. Both of which are sensitive to high light intensities. Low-temperature fluorescence studies show that in the menD(-) and menE(-) mutants, the ratio of PS I to PS II is reduced relative to the wild type. Whole-chain electron transfer rates in the menD(-) and menE(-) mutant cells are correspondingly higher on a chlorophyll basis. The slower growth rate and high-light sensitivity of the menD(-) and menE(-) mutants are therefore attributed to a lower content of PS I per cell.

Insertional inactivation of the menG gene, encoding 2-phytyl-1,4-naphthoquinone methyltransferase of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, results in the incorporation of 2-phytyl-1,4-naphthoquinone into the A(1) site and alteration of the equilibrium constant between A(1) and F(X) in photosystem I

A gene encoding a methyltransferase (menG) was identified in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 as responsible for transferring the methyl group to 2-phytyl-1,4-naphthoquinone in the biosynthetic pathway of phylloquinone, the secondary electron acceptor in photosystem I (PS I). Mass spectrometric measurements showed that targeted inactivation of the menG gene prevented the methylation step in the synthesis of phylloquinone and led to the accumulation of 2-phytyl-1,4-naphthoquinone in PS I. Growth rates of the wild-type and the menG mutant strains under photoautotrophic and photomixotrophic conditions were virtually identical. The chlorophyll a content of the menG mutant strain was similar to that of wild type when the cells were grown at a light intensity of 50 microE m(-2) s(-1) but was slightly lower when grown at 300 microE m(-2) s(-1). Chlorophyll fluorescence emission measurements at 77 K showed a larger increase in the ratio of PS II to PS I in the menG mutant strain relative to the wild type as the light intensity was elevated from 50 to 300 microE m(-2) s(-1). CW EPR studies at 34 GHz and transient EPR studies at multiple frequencies showed that the quinone radical in the menG mutant has a similar overall line width as that for the wild type, but consistent with the presence of an aromatic proton at ring position 2, the pattern of hyperfine splittings showed two lines in the low-field region. The spin polarization pattern indicated that 2-phytyl-1,4-naphthoquinone is in the same orientation as phylloquinone, and out-of-phase, spin-echo modulation spectroscopy shows the same P700(+) to Q(-) center-to-center distance as in wild-type PS I. Transient EPR studies indicated that the lifetime for forward electron transfer from Q(-) to F(X) is slowed from 290 ns in the wild type to 600 ns in the menG mutant. The redox potential of 2-phytyl-1,4-naphthoquinone is estimated to be 50 to 60 mV more oxidizing than phylloquinone in the A(1) site, which translates to a lowering of the equilibrium constant between Q(-)/Q and F(X)(-)/F(X) by a factor of ca. 10. The lifetime of the P700(+) [F(A)/F(B)](-) backreaction decreased from 80 ms in the wild type to 20 ms in the menG mutant strain and is evidence for a thermally activated, uphill electron transfer through the quinone rather than a direct charge recombination between [F(A)/F(B)](-) and P700(+).

The reaction center of green sulfur bacteria(1)

The composition of the P840-reaction center complex (RC), energy and electron transfer within the RC, as well as its topographical organization and interaction with other components in the membrane of green sulfur bacteria are presented, and compared to the FeS-type reaction centers of Photosystem I and of Heliobacteria. The core of the RC is homodimeric, since pscA is the only gene found in the genome of Chlorobium tepidum which resembles the genes psaA and -B for the heterodimeric core of Photosystem I. Functionally intact RC can be isolated from several species of green sulfur bacteria. It is generally composed of five subunits, PscA-D plus the BChl a-protein FMO. Functional cores, with PscA and PscB only, can be isolated from Prostecochloris aestuarii. The PscA-dimer binds P840, a special pair of BChl a-molecules, the primary electron acceptor A(0), which is a Chl a-derivative and FeS-center F(X). An equivalent to the electron acceptor A(1) in Photosystem I, which is tightly bound phylloquinone acting between A(0) and F(X), is not required for forward electron transfer in the RC of green sulfur bacteria. This difference is reflected by different rates of electron transfer between A(0) and F(X) in the two systems. The subunit PscB contains the two FeS-centers F(A) and F(B). STEM particle analysis suggests that the core of the RC with PscA and PscB resembles the PsaAB/PsaC-core of the P700-reaction center in Photosystem I. PscB may form a protrusion into the cytoplasmic space where reduction of ferredoxin occurs, with FMO trimers bound on both sides of this protrusion. Thus the subunit composition of the RC in vivo should be 2(FMO)(3)(PscA)(2)PscB(PscC)(2)PscD. Only 16 BChl a-, four Chl a-molecules and two carotenoids are bound to the RC-core, which is substantially less than its counterpart of Photosystem I, with 85 Chl a-molecules and 22 carotenoids. A total of 58 BChl a/RC are present in the membranes of green sulfur bacteria outside the chlorosomes, corresponding to two trimers of FMO (42 Bchl a) per RC (16 BChl a). The question whether the homodimeric RC is totally symmetric is still open. Furthermore, it is still unclear which cytochrome c is the physiological electron donor to P840(+). Also the way of NAD(+)-reduction is unknown, since a gene equivalent to ferredoxin-NADP(+) reductase is not present in the genome.

Modification of photosystem I reaction center by the extraction and exchange of chlorophylls and quinones

The photosystem (PS) I photosynthetic reaction center was modified thorough the selective extraction and exchange of chlorophylls and quinones. Extraction of lyophilized photosystem I complex with diethyl ether depleted more than 90% chlorophyll (Chl) molecules bound to the complex, preserving the photochemical electron transfer activity from the primary electron donor P700 to the acceptor chlorophyll A(0). The treatment extracted all the carotenoids and the secondary acceptor phylloquinone (A(1)), and produced a PS I reaction center that contains nine molecules of Chls including P700 and A(0), and three Fe-S clusters (F(X), F(A) and F(B)). The ether-extracted PS I complex showed fast electron transfer from P700 to A(0) as it is, and to FeS clusters if phylloquinone or an appropriate artificial quinone was reconstituted as A(1). The ether-extracted PS I enabled accurate detection of the primary photoreactions with little disturbance from the absorbance changes of the bulk pigments. The quinone reconstitution created the new reactions between the artificial cofactors and the intrinsic components with altered energy gaps. We review the studies done in the ether-extracted PS I complex including chlorophyll forms of the core moiety of PS I, fluorescence of P700, reaction rate between A(0) and reconstituted A(1), and the fast electron transfer from P700 to A(0). Natural exchange of chlorophyll a to 710-740 nm absorbing chlorophyll d in PS I of the newly found cyanobacteria-like organism Acaryochloris marina was also reviewed. Based on the results of exchange studies in different systems, designs of photosynthetic reaction centers are discussed.

Electron transfer in photosystem I

This mini-review focuses on recent experimental results and questions, which came up since the last more comprehensive reviews on the subject. We include a brief discussion of the different techniques used for time-resolved studies of electron transfer in photosystem I (PS I) and relate the kinetic results to new structural data of the PS I reaction centre.

Selective extraction of antenna chlorophylls, carotenoids and quinones from photosystem I reaction center

By the ether treatment of lyophilized PSI pigment-protein complexes, all the carotenoids and the secondary acceptor phylloquinone (A1), and more than 90% of the Chl were removed to yield the PSI complex with 9-11 molecules of Chl per reaction-center unit. The complexes retained the primary electron donor and acceptor (P700 and A0), in addition to three FeS clusters (F(X), F(A) and F(B)), and showed an activity of highly efficient electron transfer when phylloquinone was reconstituted. The methods for the preparation and the characterization of the ether-extracted PSI complexes are reviewed in this article. We also review the studies done with this PSI preparation on (1) the identification of the absorption and fluorescence spectra of P700, (2) the nano- and picosecond reaction of A0 and A1, (3) the energy-gap dependency of the reaction rate between A0 and the artificial quinones reconstituted at the A1 site, (4) the direct excitation of P700 followed by the ultra-fast electron transfer from P700 to A0, and (5) the de- and re-stabilization of the PSI structure by the removal and reconstitution, respectively, of antenna Chl in the presence of certain lipids.

Recruitment of a foreign quinone into the A(1) site of photosystem I. I. Genetic and physiological characterization of phylloquinone biosynthetic pathway mutants in Synechocystis sp. pcc 6803

Genes encoding enzymes of the biosynthetic pathway leading to phylloquinone, the secondary electron acceptor of photosystem (PS) I, were identified in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 by comparison with genes encoding enzymes of the menaquinone biosynthetic pathway in Escherichia coli. Targeted inactivation of the menA and menB genes, which code for phytyl transferase and 1,4-dihydroxy-2-naphthoate synthase, respectively, prevented the synthesis of phylloquinone, thereby confirming the participation of these two gene products in the biosynthetic pathway. The menA and menB mutants grow photoautotrophically under low light conditions (20 microE m(-2) s(-1)), with doubling times twice that of the wild type, but they are unable to grow under high light conditions (120 microE m(-2) s(-1)). The menA and menB mutants grow photoheterotrophically on media supplemented with glucose under low light conditions, with doubling times similar to that of the wild type, but they are unable to grow under high light conditions unless atrazine is present to inhibit PS II activity. The level of active PS II per cell in the menA and menB mutant strains is identical to that of the wild type, but the level of active PS I is about 50-60% that of the wild type as assayed by low temperature fluorescence, P700 photoactivity, and electron transfer rates. PS I complexes isolated from the menA and menB mutant strains contain the full complement of polypeptides, show photoreduction of F(A) and F(B) at 15 K, and support 82-84% of the wild type rate of electron transfer from cytochrome c(6) to flavodoxin. HPLC analyses show high levels of plastoquinone-9 in PS I complexes from the menA and menB mutants but not from the wild type. We propose that in the absence of phylloquinone, PS I recruits plastoquinone-9 into the A(1) site, where it functions as an efficient cofactor in electron transfer from A(0) to the iron-sulfur clusters.

Inactivation of the open reading frame slr0399 in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 functionally complements mutations near the Q(A) niche of photosystem II. A possible role of Slr0399 as a chaperone for quinone binding

The Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 triple mutant D2R8 with V247M/A249T/M329I mutations in the D2 subunit of the photosystem II is impaired in Q(A) function, has an apparently mobile Q(A), and is unable to grow photoautotrophically. Several photoautotrophic pseudorevertants of this mutant have been isolated, each of which retained the original psbDI mutations of D2R8. Using a newly developed mapping technique, the site of the secondary mutations has been located in the open reading frame slr0399. Two different nucleotide substitutions and a deletion of about 60% of slr0399 were each shown to restore photoautotrophy in different pseudorevertants of the mutant D2R8, suggesting that inactivation of Slr0399 leads to photoautotrophic growth in D2R8. Indeed, a targeted deletion of slr0399 restores photoautotrophy in D2R8 and in other psbDI mutants impaired in Q(A) function. Slr0399 is similar to the hypothetical protein Ycf39, which is encoded in the cyanelle genome of Cyanophora paradoxa; in the chloroplast genomes of diatoms, dinoflagellates, and red algae; and in the nuclear genome of Arabidopsis thaliana. Slr0399 and Ycf39 have a NAD(P)H binding motif near their N terminus and have some similarity to isoflavone reductase-like proteins and to a subunit of the eukaryotic NADH dehydrogenase complex I. Deletion of slr0399 in wild type Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 has no significant phenotypic effects other than a decrease in thermotolerance under both photoautotrophic and photomixotrophic conditions. We suggest that Slr0399 is a chaperone-like protein that aids in, but is not essential for, quinone insertion and protein folding around Q(A) in photosystem II. Moreover, as the effects of Slr0399 are not limited to photosystem II, this protein may also be involved in assembly of quinones in other photosynthetic and respiratory complexes.

Antioxidant properties of plastoquinol and other biological prenylquinols in liposomes and solution

Oxidation of biological prenylquinols, like plastoquinol-9 (PQH2-9), ubiquinol-10 (UQH2-10), reduced vitamins K1 (VK1H2) and K2 (VK2H2), alpha-tocopherol quinol (alpha-TQH2) and alpha-tocopherol (alpha-T) was followed by their fluorescence during sonication of egg yolk lecithin/prenylquinol liposomes. The order of magnitude of oxidation of the prenylquinols by free radicals generated during sonication was UQH2-10 > VK2H2 > VK1H2 > alpha-TQH2 > PQH2-9 > alpha-T. It was shown that egg yolk lecithin undergoes degradation even when sonicated briefly under atmosphere of nitrogen and at 0 degree C. A kinetic study of free radical scavenging action of the prenylquinols in solvents of different polarity was performed. The pseudo-first-order rate constants, k, for the reaction of the prenylquinols with 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) in hexane showed that their scavenging activity changes in the order VK2H2 > VK1H2 > alpha-TQH2 > PQH2-9 > alpha-T > UQH2-10, being the highest in hexane and methanol, whereas in acetone and ethyl acetate the scavenging activity appeared much lower. The reaction rate constants, k, were apparently not dependent on the solvent polarity. The antioxidant activity of the prenylquinols in natural membranes is discussed.

Linear dichroism and molecular orientation in Langmuir-Blodgett films of plastoquinones and alpha-tocopherol quinone

The linear dichroism of monolayers of plastoquinone-9, plastoquinone-3 and alpha-tocopherol quinone has been measured. The angle between the transition moments and the plane of the solid support was found to lie between 24 degrees and 28 degrees for the investigated prenylquinones. The possible orientation of quinone rings in a monolayer state has been discussed.

Purification and crystallization of Photosystem I complex from a phycobilisome-less mutant of the cyanobacterium Synechococcus PCC 7002

An active photosystem (PSI) complex was isolated from a phycobilisome-less mutant of the mesophilic cyanobacterium Synechococcus PCC 7002 by a mild procedure. Purification of PS I was achieved using a sucrose density gradient and an isoelectric focussing subsequent to the extraction of PSI from thylakoids with dodecyl-β-maltoside. Electron microscopy and gel filtration HPLC suggested that the isolated complex represents a trimeric form of PSI. The trimeric form was resistant to pH or detergent exchange. A 'molecular weight' of 690 kDa to 760 kDa has been determined for the complex by gel filtration HPLC in several detergents or mixtures of detergents.The PSI complex contains the polypeptides of the psaA, psaB, psaC, psaD, psaE, psaL gene products and two small polypeptides as determined by SDS-PAGE and N-terminal sequencing; its antenna size is 77±2 Chl a/P700. The full set of Fe-S clusters (FA, FB and FX) was observed by EPR-spectroscopy. A preliminary characterization of crystals obtained from this preparation was carried out using SDS-PAGE, optical and EPR spectroscopy.

Charge recombination between P700+ and A1- occurs directly to the ground state of P700 in a photosystem I core devoid of FX, FB, and FA

The charge recombination between P700+ and electron acceptor A1- was studied by flash kinetic spectroscopy in a photosystem I core devoid of iron-sulfur centers FX, FB, and FA. We showed previously that the majority of the flash-induced absorption change at 820 nm decayed with a 10-microseconds half-time, which we assigned to the disappearance of the P700 triplet formed from the backreaction of P700+ with A1- [Warren, P.V., Parrett, K.G., Warden, J.T., & Golbeck, J.H. (1990) Biochemistry 29, 6545-6550]. We have reinvestigated this assignment in the near-UV, blue, and near-IR wavelength regions. The difference spectrum from 380 to 480 nm and from 720 to 910 nm shows that the P700+ A1- charge recombination is dominated by the P700 cation rather than the P700 triplet. Accordingly, the 10-microseconds kinetic transient represents the direct backreaction of P700+ with A1-, which repopulates the ground state of P700. This is unlike a P700-FA/FB complex where, in the presence of reduced FX-, FB-, and FA-, the P700+ A1- charge recombination populates the P700 triplet state [Sétif, P., & Bottin, H. (1989) Biochemistry 28, 2689-2697]. The A1 acceptor is highly susceptible to disruption by detergents in the absence of iron-sulfur center FX. The addition of 0.1% Triton X-100 to the P700-A1 core leads to a approximately 2.5-fold increase in the magnitude of the flash-induced absorption change at 780 nm; thereafter, 85% of the absorption change decays with a 25-ns half-time and 15% decays with a 3-microseconds half-time.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Monolayer study of plastoquinones, alpha-tocopherol quinone, their hydroquinone forms and their interaction with monogalactosyldiacylglycerol. Charge-transfer complexes in a mixed monolayer

The surface pressure-area isotherms of pure plastoquinone-9 (PQ-9), plastoquinone-3 (PQ-3), alpha-tocopherol quinone (alpha-TQ), their reduced (hydroquinone) forms and mixtures of these molecules with monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) have been studied by a monolayer technique. The collapse pressures of all hydroquinones (QH2) were higher than those of the corresponding quinones (Q), the difference being highest between PQ-9 and PQH2-9. The limiting molecular areas of hydroquinones were higher than those of the corresponding quinones except for alpha-TQH2. All Q-QH2 mixtures showed miscibility throughout the whole range of the components' ratios. There was no deviation from the additivity rule observed for any of the Q-QH2 mixture, as well as for the mixtures of MGDG with PQ-3, PQH2-9, alpha-TQ and alpha-TQH2. On the other hand, PQ-9/MGDG and PQH2-3/MGDG mixtures showed positive and negative deviations, respectively. All the isotherms of Q-MGDG and QH2-MGDG mixtures showed a kink point above the collapse pressure of the Q or QH2 examined, indicating that with the increase in surface pressure, Q or QH2 were gradually squeezed out from the monolayer. The percent content of Q and QH2 in the monolayer as a function of surface pressure was also calculated. The hydroquinones were more difficult to remove from monolayers than the corresponding quinones, and among the investigated quinones, PQ-9 was most easily and alpha-TQ most difficulty squeezed out. The surface pressure-area isotherms of the three-component mixtures of PQ-9/PQH2-9/MGDG showed a shift to lower molecular areas in comparison with the corresponding two-component mixtures, especially at higher surface pressures. This indicates that the presence of PQ-9 lowered the PQH2-9 content in the monolayer, especially at higher pressures, which was explained by charge-transfer complex formation upon interaction of PQ-9 with PQH2-9. The comparison of surface potential-area isotherms of PQ-9/PQH2-9/MGDG mixtures with those of the corresponding binary mixtures also suggest charge-transfer interaction between PQ-9 and PQH2-9. The orientation and localization of the investigated quinones and quinols in the thylakoid membrane and significance of charge-transfer interactions in functioning of PQ-9 has been discussed.

Photoaffinity labeling of the phylloquinone-binding polypeptides by 2-azidoanthraquinone in photosystem I particles

A photoaffinity label, 2-azido-9,10-anthraquinone, binds at the quinone-binding (Q phi) site with high affinity and can substitute for the secondary acceptor, phylloquinone, in photosystem I reaction center of spinach. Phylloquinone-depleted photosystem I particles reconstituted with azido[3H]anthraquinone were illuminated with UV light and analyzed by sodium dodecylsulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The large core polypeptides (psaA and/or psaB) were selectively labeled. The labeling was competitively inhibited in the presence of anthraquinone. These results indicate that the Q phi site is located on psaA or psaB polypeptides.

The composition and organization of photosystem I

Photosystem I, extensively studied in the past decade, was shown to be homologous in all photosynthetic organisms of the higher plants type. Its core complex was found to be highly conserved through evolution from cyanobacteria to higher plants. The genes coding for the subunits of CCI were isolated and the resulting sequences provided information about secondary structural elements. These suggested secondary structures enabled the prediction of the topology of these subunits in the photosynthetic membrane. Structural studies using both electron microscopy and X-ray crystallography, on isolated particles as well as on the complexes in the photosynthetic membrane, led to a better understanding of the overall structure of CCI. Recently two forms of three dimensional crystals of CCI were obtained. These crystals contain all the original components of CCI (both protein and pigments); these components have not been altered by crystallization. It is expected that a detailed crystallographic analysis of these crystals, together with biochemical, spectroscopical and molecular biology studies, will eventually lead to the elucidation of the high resolution structure of the photosystem I core complex and to the understanding of the exact role and mode of action of this complex in the photosynthetic membrane.

Purification and properties of the intact P-700 and Fx-containing Photosystem I core protein

The intact Photosystem I core protein, containing the psaA and psaB polypeptides, and electron transfer components P-700 through FX, was isolated from cyanobacterial and higher plant Photosystem I complexes with chaotropic agents followed by sucrose density ultracentrifugation. The concentrations of NaClO4, NaSCN, NaI, NaBr or urea required for the functional removal of the 8.9 kDa, FA/FB polypeptide was shown to be inversely related to the strength of the chaotrope. The Photosystem I core protein, which was purified to homogeniety, contains 4 mol of acid-labile sulfide and has the following properties: (i) the FX-containing core consists of the 82 and 83 kDa reaction center polypeptides but is totally devoid of the low-molecular-mass polypeptides; (ii) methyl viologen and other bipyridilium dyes have the ability to accept electrons directly from FX; (iii) the difference spectrum of FX from 400 to 900 nm is characteristic of an iron-sulfur cluster; (iv) the midpoint potential of FX, determined optically at room temperature, is 60 mV more positive than in the control; (v) there is indication by ESR spectroscopy of low-temperature heterogeneity within FX; and (vi) the heterogeneity is seen by optical spectroscopy as inefficiency in low-temperature electron flow to FX. The constraints imposed by the amount of non-heme iron and labile sulfide in the Photosystem I core protein, the cysteine content of the psaA and psaB polypeptides, and the stoichiometry of high-molecular-mass polypeptides, cause us to re-examine the possibility that FX is a [4Fe-4S] rather than a [2Fe-2S] cluster ligated by homologous cysteine residues on the psaA and psaB heterodimer.