A new photosystem II reaction center component (4.8 kDa protein) encoded by chloroplast genome

Structure of the red-shifted Fittonia albivenis photosystem I

Photosystem I (PSI) from Fittonia albivenis, an Acanthaceae ornamental plant, is notable among green plants for its red-shifted emission spectrum. Here, we solved the structure of a PSI-light harvesting complex I (LHCI) supercomplex from F. albivenis at 2.46-Å resolution using cryo-electron microscopy. The supercomplex contains a core complex of 14 subunits and an LHCI belt with four antenna subunits (Lhca1-4) similar to previously reported angiosperm PSI-LHCI structures; however, Lhca3 differs in three regions surrounding a dimer of low-energy chlorophylls (Chls) termed red Chls, which absorb far-red beyond visible light. The unique amino acid sequences within these regions are exclusively shared by plants with strongly red-shifted fluorescence emission, suggesting candidate structural elements for regulating the energy state of red Chls. These results provide a structural basis for unraveling the mechanisms of light harvest and transfer in PSI-LHCI of under canopy plants and for designing Lhc to harness longer-wavelength light in the far-red spectral range.

Presence of low-energy chlorophylls d in photosystem I trimer and monomer cores isolated from Acaryochloris sp. NBRC 102871

Acaryochloris species belong to a special category of cyanobacteria possessing chlorophyll (Chl) d. One of the photosynthetic characteristics of Acaryochloris marina MBIC11017 is that the absorption spectra of photosystem I (PSI) showed almost no bands and shoulders of low-energy Chls d over 740 nm. In contrast, the absorption spectra of other Acaryochloris species showed a shoulder around 740 nm, suggesting that low-energy Chls d within PSI are diversified among Acaryochloris species. In this study, we purified PSI trimer and monomer cores from Acaryochloris sp. NBRC 102871 and examined their protein and pigment compositions and spectral properties. The protein bands and pigment compositions of the PSI trimer and monomer of NBRC102871 were virtually identical to those of MBIC11017. The absorption spectra of the NBRC102871 PSIs exhibited a shoulder around 740 nm, whereas the fluorescence spectra of PSI trimer and monomer displayed maximum peaks at 754 and 767 nm, respectively. These spectral properties were different from those of MBIC11017, indicating the presence of low-energy Chls d within the NBRC102871 PSIs. Moreover, we analyzed the NBRC102871 genome to identify amino acid sequences of PSI proteins and compared them with those of the A. marina MBIC11017 and MBIC10699 strains whose genomes are available. The results showed that some of the sequences in NBRC102871 were distinct from those in MBIC11017 and MBIC10699. These findings provide insights into the variety of low-energy Chls d with respect to the protein environments of PSI cores among the three Acaryochloris strains.

Tight association of CpcL with photosystem I in Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 grown under iron-deficient conditions

Phycobilisomes (PBSs), which are huge pigment-protein complexes displaying distinctive color variations, bind to photosystem cores for excitation-energy transfer. It is known that isolation of supercomplexes consisting of PBSs and photosystem I (PSI) or PBSs and photosystem II is challenging due to weak interactions between PBSs and the photosystem cores. In this study, we succeeded in purifying PSI-monomer-PBS and PSI-dimer-PBS supercomplexes from the cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 grown under iron-deficient conditions by anion-exchange chromatography, followed by trehalose density gradient centrifugation. The absorption spectra of the two types of supercomplexes showed apparent bands originating from PBSs, and their fluorescence-emission spectra exhibited characteristic peaks of PBSs. Two-dimensional blue-native (BN)/SDS-PAGE of the two samples showed a band of CpcL, which is a linker protein of PBS, in addition to PsaA/B. Since interactions of PBSs with PSI are easily dissociated during BN-PAGE using thylakoids from this cyanobacterium grown under iron-replete conditions, it is suggested that iron deficiency for Anabaena induces tight association of CpcL with PSI, resulting in the formation of PSI-monomer-PBS and PSI-dimer-PBS supercomplexes. Based on these findings, we discuss interactions of PBSs with PSI in Anabaena.

Structural and functional properties of different types of siphonous LHCII trimers from an intertidal green alga Bryopsis corticulans

Light-harvesting complexes of photosystem II (LHCIIs) in green algae and plants are vital antenna apparatus for light harvesting, energy transfer, and photoprotection. Here we determined the structure of a siphonous-type LHCII trimer from the intertidal green alga Bryopsis corticulans by X-ray crystallography and cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), and analyzed its functional properties by spectral analysis. The Bryopsis LHCII (Bry-LHCII) structures in both homotrimeric and heterotrimeric form show that green light-absorbing siphonaxanthin and siphonein occupied the sites of lutein and violaxanthin in plant LHCII, and two extra chlorophylls (Chls) b replaced Chls a. Binding of these pigments expands the blue-green light absorption of B. corticulans in the tidal zone. We observed differences between the Bry-LHCII homotrimer crystal and cryo-EM structures, and also between Bry-LHCII homotrimer and heterotrimer cryo-EM structures. These conformational changes may reflect the flexibility of Bry-LHCII, which may be required to adapt to light fluctuations from tidal rhythms.

Isolation and characterization of trimeric and monomeric PSI cores from Acaryochloris marina MBIC11017

Photosystem I (PSI) catalyzes light-induced electron-transfer reactions and has been observed to exhibit various oligomeric states and different energy levels of chlorophylls (Chls) in response to oligomerization. However, the biochemical and spectroscopic properties of a PSI monomer containing Chls d are not well understood. In this study, we successfully isolated and characterized PSI monomers from the cyanobacterium Acaryochloris marina MBIC11017, and compared their properties with those of the A. marina PSI trimer. The PSI trimers and monomers were prepared using trehalose density gradient centrifugation after anion-exchange and hydrophobic interaction chromatography. The polypeptide composition of the PSI monomer was found to be consistent with that of the PSI trimer. The absorption spectrum of the PSI monomer showed the Qy band of Chl d at 704 nm, which was blue-shifted from the peak at 707 nm observed in the PSI-trimer spectrum. The fluorescence-emission spectrum of the PSI monomer measured at 77 K exhibited a peak at 730 nm without a broad shoulder in the range of 745-780 nm, which was clearly observed in the PSI-trimer spectrum. These spectroscopic properties of the A. marina PSI trimer and monomer suggest different formations of low-energy Chls d between the two types of PSI cores. Based on these findings, we discuss the location of low-energy Chls d in A. marina PSIs.

Biochemical and spectroscopic characterization of PSI-LHCI from the red alga Cyanidium caldarium

Light-harvesting complexes (LHCs) have been diversified in oxygenic photosynthetic organisms, and play an essential role in capturing light energy which is transferred to two types of photosystem cores to promote charge-separation reactions. Red algae are one of the groups of photosynthetic eukaryotes, and their chlorophyll (Chl) a-binding LHCs are specifically associated with photosystem I (PSI). In this study, we purified three types of preparations, PSI-LHCI supercomplexes, PSI cores, and isolated LHCIs, from the red alga Cyanidium caldarium, and examined their properties. The polypeptide bands of PSI-LHCI showed characteristic PSI and LHCI components without contamination by other proteins. The carotenoid composition of LHCI displayed zeaxanthins, β-cryptoxanthins, and β-carotenes. Among the carotenoids, zeaxanthins were enriched in LHCI. On the contrary, both zeaxanthins and β-cryptoxanthins could not be detected from PSI, suggesting that zeaxanthins and β-cryptoxanthins are bound to LHCI but not PSI. A Qy peak of Chl a in the absorption spectrum of LHCI was shifted to a shorter wavelength than those in PSI and PSI-LHCI. This tendency is in line with the result of fluorescence-emission spectra, in which the emission maxima of PSI-LHCI, PSI, and LHCI appeared at 727, 719, and 677 nm, respectively. Time-resolved fluorescence spectra of LHCI represented no 719 and 727-nm fluorescence bands from picoseconds to nanoseconds. These results indicate that energy levels of Chls around/within LHCIs and within PSI are changed by binding LHCIs to PSI. Based on these findings, we discuss the expression, function, and structure of red algal PSI-LHCI supercomplexes.

Structure of a monomeric photosystem I core associated with iron-stress-induced-A proteins from Anabaena sp. PCC 7120

Iron-stress-induced-A proteins (IsiAs) are expressed in cyanobacteria under iron-deficient conditions. The cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 has four isiA genes; however, their binding property and functional roles in PSI are still missing. We analyzed a cryo-electron microscopy structure of a PSI-IsiA supercomplex isolated from Anabaena grown under an iron-deficient condition. The PSI-IsiA structure contains six IsiA subunits associated with the PsaA side of a PSI core monomer. Three of the six IsiA subunits were identified as IsiA1 and IsiA2. The PSI-IsiA structure lacks a PsaL subunit; instead, a C-terminal domain of IsiA2 occupies the position of PsaL, which inhibits the oligomerization of PSI, leading to the formation of a PSI monomer. Furthermore, excitation-energy transfer from IsiAs to PSI appeared with a time constant of 55 ps. These findings provide insights into both the molecular assembly of the Anabaena IsiA family and the functional roles of IsiAs.

Effects of mutations of D1-R323, D1-N322, D1-D319, D1-H304 on the functioning of photosystem II in Thermosynechococcus vulcanus

Photosystem II (PSII) has a number of hydrogen-bonding networks connecting the manganese cluster with the lumenal bulk solution. The structure of PSII from Thermosynechococcus vulcanus (T. vulcanus) showed that D1-R323, D1-N322, D1-D319 and D1-H304 are involved in one of these hydrogen-bonding networks located in the interfaces between the D1, CP43 and PsbV subunits. In order to investigate the functions of these residues in PSII, we generated seven site-directed mutants D1-R323A, D1-R323E, D1-N322R, D1-D319L, D1-D319R, D1-D319Y and D1-H304D of T. vulcanus and examined the effects of these mutations on the growth and functions of the oxygen-evolving complex. The photoautotrophic growth rates of these mutants were similar to that of the wild type, whereas the oxygen-evolving activities of the mutant cells were decreased differently to 63-91% of that of the wild type at pH 6.5. The mutant cells showed a higher relative activity at higher pH region than the wild type cells, suggesting that higher pH facilitated proton egress in the mutants. In addition, oxygen evolution of thylakoid membranes isolated from these mutants showed an apparent decrease compared to that of the cells. This is due to the loss of PsbU during purification of the thylakoid membranes. Moreover, PsbV was also lost in the PSII core complexes purified from the mutants. Taken together, D1-R323, D1-N322, D1-D319 and D1-H304 are vital for the optimal function of oxygen evolution and functional binding of extrinsic proteins to PSII core, and may be involved in the proton egress pathway mediated by Y_Z.

Advances in the Understanding of the Lifecycle of Photosystem II

Photosystem II is a light-driven water-plastoquinone oxidoreductase present in cyanobacteria, algae and plants. It produces molecular oxygen and protons to drive ATP synthesis, fueling life on Earth. As a multi-subunit membrane-protein-pigment complex, Photosystem II undergoes a dynamic cycle of synthesis, damage, and repair known as the Photosystem II lifecycle, to maintain a high level of photosynthetic activity at the cellular level. Cyanobacteria, oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria, are frequently used as model organisms to study oxygenic photosynthetic processes due to their ease of growth and genetic manipulation. The cyanobacterial PSII structure and function have been well-characterized, but its lifecycle is under active investigation. In this review, advances in studying the lifecycle of Photosystem II in cyanobacteria will be discussed, with a particular emphasis on new structural findings enabled by cryo-electron microscopy. These structural findings complement a rich and growing body of biochemical and molecular biology research into Photosystem II assembly and repair.

Structural basis for the absence of low-energy chlorophylls in a photosystem I trimer from Gloeobacter violaceus

Photosystem I (PSI) is a multi-subunit pigment-protein complex that functions in light-harvesting and photochemical charge-separation reactions, followed by reduction of NADP to NADPH required for CO₂ fixation in photosynthetic organisms. PSI from different photosynthetic organisms has a variety of chlorophylls (Chls), some of which are at lower-energy levels than its reaction center P700, a special pair of Chls, and are called low-energy Chls. However, the sites of low-energy Chls are still under debate. Here, we solved a 2.04-Å resolution structure of a PSI trimer by cryo-electron microscopy from a primordial cyanobacterium Gloeobacter violaceus PCC 7421, which has no low-energy Chls. The structure shows the absence of some subunits commonly found in other cyanobacteria, confirming the primordial nature of this cyanobacterium. Comparison with the known structures of PSI from other cyanobacteria and eukaryotic organisms reveals that one dimeric and one trimeric Chls are lacking in the Gloeobacter PSI. The dimeric and trimeric Chls are named Low1 and Low2, respectively. Low2 is missing in some cyanobacterial and eukaryotic PSIs, whereas Low1 is absent only in Gloeobacter. These findings provide insights into not only the identity of low-energy Chls in PSI, but also the evolutionary changes of low-energy Chls in oxyphototrophs.

Structure of a tetrameric photosystem I from a glaucophyte alga Cyanophora paradoxa

Photosystem I (PSI) is one of the two photosystems functioning in light-energy harvesting, transfer, and electron transfer in photosynthesis. However, the oligomerization state of PSI is variable among photosynthetic organisms. We present a 3.8-Å resolution cryo-electron microscopic structure of tetrameric PSI isolated from the glaucophyte alga Cyanophora paradoxa, which reveals differences with PSI from other organisms in subunit composition and organization. The PSI tetramer is organized in a dimer of dimers with a C2 symmetry. Unlike cyanobacterial PSI tetramers, two of the four monomers are rotated around 90°, resulting in a completely different pattern of monomer-monomer interactions. Excitation-energy transfer among chlorophylls differs significantly between Cyanophora and cyanobacterial PSI tetramers. These structural and spectroscopic features reveal characteristic interactions and excitation-energy transfer in the Cyanophora PSI tetramer, suggesting that the Cyanophora PSI could represent a turning point in the evolution of PSI from prokaryotes to eukaryotes.

Excitation-energy transfer in heterocysts isolated from the cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 as studied by time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy

Heterocysts are formed in filamentous heterocystous cyanobacteria under nitrogen-starvation conditions, and possess a very low amount of photosystem II (PSII) complexes than vegetative cells. Molecular, morphological, and biochemical characterizations of heterocysts have been investigated; however, excitation-energy dynamics in heterocysts are still unknown. In this study, we examined excitation-energy-relaxation processes of pigment-protein complexes in heterocysts isolated from the cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. PCC 7120. Thylakoid membranes from the heterocysts showed no oxygen-evolving activity under our experimental conditions and no thermoluminescence-glow curve originating from charge recombination of S2QA-. Two dimensional blue-native/SDS-PAGE analysis exhibits tetrameric, dimeric, and monomeric photosystem I (PSI) complexes but almost no dimeric and monomeric PSII complexes in the heterocyst thylakoids. The steady-state fluorescence spectrum of the heterocyst thylakoids at 77 K displays both characteristic PSI fluorescence and unusual PSII fluorescence different from the fluorescence of PSII dimer and monomer complexes. Time-resolved fluorescence spectra at 77 K, followed by fluorescence decay-associated spectra, showed different PSII and PSI fluorescence bands between heterocysts and vegetative thylakoids. Based on these findings, we discuss excitation-energy-transfer mechanisms in the heterocysts.

A unique photosystem I reaction center from a chlorophyll d-containing cyanobacterium Acaryochloris marina

Photosystem I (PSI) is a large protein supercomplex that catalyzes the light-dependent oxidation of plastocyanin (or cytochrome c₆ ) and the reduction of ferredoxin. This catalytic reaction is realized by a transmembrane electron transfer chain consisting of primary electron donor (a special chlorophyll (Chl) pair) and electron acceptors A₀ , A₁ , and three Fe₄ S₄ clusters, F_X , F_A , and F_B . Here we report the PSI structure from a Chl d-dominated cyanobacterium Acaryochloris marina at 3.3 Å resolution obtained by single-particle cryo-electron microscopy. The A. marina PSI exists as a trimer with three identical monomers. Surprisingly, the structure reveals a unique composition of electron transfer chain in which the primary electron acceptor A₀ is composed of two pheophytin a rather than Chl a found in any other well-known PSI structures. A novel subunit Psa27 is observed in the A. marina PSI structure. In addition, 77 Chls, 13 α-carotenes, two phylloquinones, three Fe-S clusters, two phosphatidyl glycerols, and one monogalactosyl-diglyceride were identified in each PSI monomer. Our results provide a structural basis for deciphering the mechanism of photosynthesis in a PSI complex with Chl d as the dominating pigments and absorbing far-red light.

Structural implications for a phycobilisome complex from the thermophilic cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus vulcanus

Phycobilisomes (PBSs) are huge, water-soluble light-harvesting complexes used by oxygenic photosynthetic organisms. The structures of some subunits of the PBSs, including allophycocyanin (APC) and phycocyanin (PC), have been solved by X-ray crystallography previously. However, there are few reports on the overall structures of PBS complexes in photosynthetic organisms. Here, we report the overall structure of the PBS complex isolated from the cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus vulcanus, determined by negative-staining electron microscopy (EM). Intact PBS complexes were purified by trehalose density gradient centrifugation with a high-concentration phosphate buffer and then subjected to a gradient-fixation preparation using glutaraldehyde. The final map constructed by the single-particle analysis of EM images showed a hemidiscoidal structure of the PBS, consisting of APC cores and peripheral PC rods. The APC cores are composed of five cylinders: A1, A2, B, C1, and C2. Each of the cylinders is composed of three (A1 and A2), four (B), or two (C1 and C2) APC trimers. In addition, there are eight PC rods in the PBS: one bottom pair (Rb and Rb'), one top pair (Rt and Rt'), and two side pairs (Rs1/Rs1' and Rs2/Rs2'). Comparison with the overall structures of PBSs from other organisms revealed structural characteristics of T. vulcanus PBS.

Enhancement of excitation-energy quenching in fucoxanthin chlorophyll a/c-binding proteins isolated from a diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum upon excess-light illumination

Photosynthetic organisms regulate pigment composition and molecular oligomerization of light-harvesting complexes in response to solar light intensities, in order to improve light-harvesting efficiency. Here we report excitation-energy dynamics and relaxation of fucoxanthin chlorophyll a/c-binding protein (FCP) complexes isolated from a diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum grown under high-light (HL) illumination. Two types of FCP complexes were prepared from this diatom under the HL condition, whereas one FCP complex was isolated from the cells grown under a low-light (LL) condition. The subunit composition and oligomeric states of FCP complexes under the HL condition are different from those under the LL condition. Absorption and fluorescence spectra at 77 K of the FCP complexes also vary between the two conditions, indicating modifications of the pigment composition and arrangement upon the HL illumination. Time-resolved fluorescence curves at 77 K of the FCP complexes under the HL condition showed shorter lifetime components compared with the LL condition. Fluorescence decay-associated spectra at 77 K showed distinct excitation-energy-quenching components and alterations of energy-transfer pathways in the FCP complexes under the HL condition. These findings provide insights into molecular and functional mechanisms of the dynamic regulation of FCPs in this diatom under excess-light conditions.

Effects of CO2 and temperature on photosynthetic performance in the diatom Chaetoceros gracilis

CO₂ concentration and temperature for growth of photosynthetic organisms are two important factors to ensure better photosynthetic performance. In this study, we investigated the effects of CO₂ concentration and temperature on the photosynthetic performance in a marine centric diatom Chaetoceros gracilis. Cells were grown under four different conditions, namely, at 25 °C with air bubbling, at 25 °C with a supplementation of 3% CO₂, at 30 °C with air bubbling, and at 30 °C with the CO₂ supplementation. It was found that the growth rate of cells at 30 °C with the CO₂ supplementation is faster than those at other three conditions. The pigment compositions of cells grown under the different conditions are altered, and fluorescence spectra measured at 77 K also showed different peak positions. A novel fucoxanthin chlorophyll a/c-binding protein complex is observed in the cells grown at 30 °C with the CO₂ supplementation but not in the other three types of cells. Since oxygen-evolving activities of the four types of cells are almost unchanged, it is suggested that the CO₂ supplementation and growth temperature are involved in the regulation of photosynthetic light-harvesting apparatus in C. gracilis at different degrees. Based on these observations, we discuss the favorable growth conditions for C. gracilis.

Function of PsbO-Asp158 in photosystem II: effects of mutation of this residue on the binding of PsbO and function of PSII in Thermosynechococcus vulcanus

PsbO-D158 is a highly conserved residue of the PsbO protein in photosystem II (PSII), and participates in one of the hydrogen-bonding networks connecting the manganese cluster with the lumenal surface. In order to examine the role of PsbO-D158, we mutated it to E, N or K in Thermosynechococcus vulcanus and characterized photosynthetic properties of the mutants obtained. The growth rates of these three mutants were similar to that of the wild type, whereas the oxygen-evolving activity of the three mutant cells decreased to 60-64% of the wild type. Fluorescence kinetics showed that the mutations did not affect the electron transfer from Q_A to Q_B, but slightly affected the donor side of PSII. Moreover, all of the three mutant cells were more sensitive to high light and became slower to recover from photoinhibition. In the isolated thylakoid membranes from the three mutants, the PsbU subunit was lost and the oxygen-evolving activity was reduced to a lower level compared to that in the respective cells. PSII complexes isolated from these mutants showed no oxygen-evolving activity, which was found to be due to large or complete loss of PsbO, PsbV and PsbU during the process of purification. Moreover, PSII cores purified from the three mutants contained Psb27, an assembly co-factor of PSII. These results suggest that PsbO-D158 is required for the proper binding of the three extrinsic proteins to PSII and plays an important role in maintaining the optimal oxygen-evolving activity, and its mutation caused incomplete assembly of the PSII complex.

Molecular organizations and function of iron-stress-induced-A protein family in Anabaena sp. PCC 7120

Iron-stress-induced-A proteins (IsiAs) are expressed in cyanobacteria under iron-deficient conditions, and surround photosystem I (PSI) trimer with a ring formation. A cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 has four isiA genes; however, it is unknown how the IsiAs are associated with PSI. Here we report on molecular organizations and function of the IsiAs in this cyanobacterium. A deletion mutant of the isiA1 gene was constructed, and the four types of thylakoids were prepared from the wild-type (WT) and ΔisiA1 cells under iron-replete (+Fe) and iron-deficient (-Fe) conditions. Immunoblotting analysis exhibits a clear expression of the IsiA1 in the WT-Fe. The PSI-IsiA1 supercomplex is found in the WT-Fe, and excitation-energy transfer from IsiA1 to PSI is verified by time-resolved fluorescence analyses. Instead of the IsiA1, both IsiA2 and IsiA3 are bound to PSI monomer in the ΔisiA1-Fe. These findings provide insights into multiple-expression system of the IsiA family in this cyanobacterium.

Basic pH-induced modification of excitation-energy dynamics in fucoxanthin chlorophyll a/c-binding proteins isolated from a pinguiophyte, Glossomastix chrysoplasta

Photosynthetic organisms have diversified light-harvesting complexes (LHCs) to collect solar energy efficiently, leading to an acquisition of their ecological niches. Herein we report on biochemical and spectroscopic characterizations of fucoxanthin chlorophyll a/c-binding protein (FCP) complexes isolated from a marine pinguiophyte Glossomastix chrysoplasta. The pinguiophyte FCP showed one subunit band in SDS-PAGE and one protein-complex band with a molecular weight at around 66 kDa in clear-native PAGE. By HPLC analysis, the FCP possesses chlorophylls a and c, fucoxanthin, and violaxanthin. To clarify excitation-energy-relaxation processes in the FCP, we measured time-resolved fluorescence spectra at 77 K of the FCP adapted to pH 5.0, 6.5, and 8.0. Fluorescence curves measured at pH 5.0 and 8.0 showed shorter lifetime components compared with those at pH 6.5. The rapid decay components at pH 5.0 and 8.0 are unveiled by fluorescence decay-associated (FDA) spectra; fluorescence decays occur in the 270 and 160-ps FDA spectra only at pH 5.0 and 8.0, respectively. In addition, energy-transfer pathways with time constants of tens of picoseconds are altered under the basic pH condition but not the acidic pH condition. These findings provide novel insights into pH-dependent energy-transfer and energy-quenching machinery in not only FCP family but also photosynthetic LHCs.

Structural basis of light-harvesting in the photosystem II core complex

Photosystem II (PSII) is a membrane-spanning, multi-subunit pigment-protein complex responsible for the oxidation of water and the reduction of plastoquinone in oxygenic photosynthesis. In the present review, the recent explosive increase in available structural information about the PSII core complex based on X-ray crystallography and cryo-electron microscopy is described at a level of detail that is suitable for a future structure-based analysis of light-harvesting processes. This description includes a proposal for a consistent numbering scheme of protein-bound pigment cofactors across species. The structural survey is complemented by an overview of the state of affairs in structure-based modeling of excitation energy transfer in the PSII core complex with emphasis on electrostatic computations, optical properties of the reaction center, the assignment of long-wavelength chlorophylls, and energy trapping mechanisms.

Structural basis for the adaptation and function of chlorophyll f in photosystem I

Chlorophylls (Chl) play pivotal roles in energy capture, transfer and charge separation in photosynthesis. Among Chls functioning in oxygenic photosynthesis, Chl f is the most red-shifted type first found in a cyanobacterium Halomicronema hongdechloris. The location and function of Chl f in photosystems are not clear. Here we analyzed the high-resolution structures of photosystem I (PSI) core from H. hongdechloris grown under white or far-red light by cryo-electron microscopy. The structure showed that, far-red PSI binds 83 Chl a and 7 Chl f, and Chl f are associated at the periphery of PSI but not in the electron transfer chain. The appearance of Chl f is well correlated with the expression of PSI genes induced under far-red light. These results indicate that Chl f functions to harvest the far-red light and enhance uphill energy transfer, and changes in the gene sequences are essential for the binding of Chl f.

Chlorophyll f (Chl f) is the most red-shifted Chl in oxygenic photosynthesis but its localization in photosystem I (PSI) has been unknown so far. Here the authors determine the cryo-EM structures of PSI complexes from a Chl f-containing cyanobacterium grown either under white light or far-red light conditions and identify seven Chls f in the far-red light PSI structure, whereas PSI from cells grown under white light contains only Chl a.

Structure of a cyanobacterial photosystem I tetramer revealed by cryo-electron microscopy

Photosystem I (PSI) functions to harvest light energy for conversion into chemical energy. The organisation of PSI is variable depending on the species of organism. Here we report the structure of a tetrameric PSI core isolated from a cyanobacterium, Anabaena sp. PCC 7120, analysed by single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) at 3.3 Å resolution. The PSI tetramer has a C2 symmetry and is organised in a dimer of dimers form. The structure reveals interactions at the dimer-dimer interface and the existence of characteristic pigment orientations and inter-pigment distances within the dimer units that are important for unique excitation energy transfer. In particular, characteristic residues of PsaL are identified to be responsible for the formation of the tetramer. Time-resolved fluorescence analyses showed that the PSI tetramer has an enhanced excitation-energy quenching. These structural and spectroscopic findings provide insights into the physiological significance of the PSI tetramer and evolutionary changes of the PSI organisations.

Spectral Properties and Excitation Relaxation of Novel Fucoxanthin Chlorophyll a/c-Binding Protein Complexes

Fucoxanthin chlorophyll a/c-binding proteins (FCPs) are unique light harvesters for some photosynthetic organisms. There were several reports for the alterations of FCPs in response to light conditions. Here, we present the spectral profiles and excitation dynamics of novel FCP complexes isolated from the diatom Chaetoceros gracilis. Under a red-light condition, C. gracilis cells expressed three types of FCP complexes, two of which are very similar to FCP complexes found in the white-light grown cells, and one of which is the novel FCP complex. The combination of steady-state absorption and fluorescence spectra and time-resolved fluorescence spectra revealed that, compared to other types of FCP complexes, the novel FCP complexes exhibited red-shifted absorption and fluorescence spectra and fast decay of excitation. This finding will provide new insights into not only the light-harvesting strategies of diatoms but also the diversity of light adaptation machinery for photosynthetic organisms.

Structural basis for energy harvesting and dissipation in a diatom PSII-FCPII supercomplex

Light-harvesting antenna systems in photosynthetic organisms harvest solar energy and transfer it to the photosynthetic reaction centres to initiate charge-separation and electron-transfer reactions. Diatoms are one of the important groups of oxyphototrophs and possess fucoxanthin chlorophyll a/c-binding proteins (FCPs) as light harvesters. The organization and association pattern of FCP with the photosystem II (PSII) core are unknown. Here we solved the structure of PSII-FCPII supercomplexes isolated from a diatom, Chaetoceros gracilis, by single-particle cryoelectron microscopy. The PSII-FCPII forms a homodimer. In each monomer, two FCP homotetramers and three FCP monomers are associated with one PSII core. The structure reveals a highly complicated protein-pigment network that is different from the green-type light-harvesting apparatus. Comparing these two systems allows the identification of energy transfer and quenching pathways. These findings provide structural insights into not only excitation-energy transfer mechanisms in the diatom PSII-FCPII, but also changes of light harvesters between the red- and green-lineage oxyphototrophs during evolution.

Biochemical characterization of photosystem I complexes having different subunit compositions of fucoxanthin chlorophyll a/c-binding proteins in the diatom Chaetoceros gracilis

Diatoms are dominant phytoplankton in aquatic environments and have unique light-harvesting apparatus, fucoxanthin chlorophyll a/c-binding protein (FCP). Diatom photosystem I (PSI) interacts with specific FCPs (FCPI); however, it remains unclear how PSI cores receive excitation energy from FCPI. To analyze the energy transfer dynamics, it is necessary to isolate both PSI cores and PSI-FCPI complexes. In this study, we prepared three PSI complexes, which are PSI-FCPI membrane fragments, detergent-solubilized PSI-FCPI supercomplexes and PSI core-like complexes, from the marine centric diatom, Chaetoceros gracilis, and examined their biochemical properties. Both the PSI-FCPI membrane fragments and supercomplexes showed similar subunit compositions including FCPI, whereas the PSI complexes were devoid of most FCPI subunits. The purity and homogeneity of the two detergent-solubilized PSI preparations were verified by clear-native PAGE and electron microscopy. The difference of pigment contents among the three PSI samples was shown by absorption spectra at 77 K. The intensity in the whole spectrum of PSI-FCPI membranes was much higher than those of the other two complexes, while the spectral shape of PSI complexes was similar to that of cyanobacterial PSI core complexes. 77-K fluorescence spectra of the three PSI preparations exhibited different spectral shapes, especially peak positions and band widths. Based on these observations, we discuss the merits of three PSI preparations for evaluating excitation energy dynamics in diatom PSI-FCPI complexes.

Conjugates between photosystem I and a carbon nanotube for a photoresponse device

Photosystem I (PS I) is a large pigment-protein complex embedded in the thylakoid membranes that performs light-driven electron transfer across the thylakoid membrane. Carbon nanotubes exhibit excellent electrical conductivities and excellent strength and stiffness. In this study, we generated PSI-carbon nanotube conjugates dispersed in a solution aimed at application in artificial photosynthesis. PS I complexes in which a carbon nanotube binding peptide was introduced into the middle of the PsaE subunit were conjugated on a single-walled carbon nanotube, orienting the electron acceptor side to the nanotube. Spectral and photoluminescence analysis showed that the PS I is bound to a single-walled carbon nanotube, which was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy. Photocurrent observation proved that the photoexcited electron originated from PSI and transferred to the carbon nanotube with light irradiation, which also confirmed its orientated conjugation. The PS I-carbon nanotube conjugate will be a useful nano-optoelectronic device for the development of artificial systems.

Isolation and characterization of PSI-LHCI super-complex and their sub-complexes from a red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae

Photosystem I (PSI)-light-harvesting complex I (LHCI) super-complex and its sub-complexes PSI core and LHCI, were purified from a unicellular red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae and characterized. PSI-LHCI of C. merolae existed as a monomer with a molecular mass of 580 kDa. Mass spectrometry analysis identified 11 subunits (PsaA, B, C, D, E, F, I, J, K, L, O) in the core complex and three LHCI subunits, CMQ142C, CMN234C, and CMN235C in LHCI, indicating that at least three Lhcr subunits associate with the red algal PSI core. PsaG was not found in the red algae PSI-LHCI, and we suggest that the position corresponding to Lhca1 in higher plant PSI-LHCI is empty in the red algal PSI-LHCI. The PSI-LHCI complex was separated into two bands on native PAGE, suggesting that two different complexes may be present with slightly different protein compositions probably with respective to the numbers of Lhcr subunits. Based on the results obtained, a structural model was proposed for the red algal PSI-LHCI. Furthermore, pigment analysis revealed that the C. merolae PSI-LHCI contained a large amount of zeaxanthin, which is mainly associated with the LHCI complex whereas little zeaxanthin was found in the PSI core. This indicates a unique feature of the carotenoid composition of the Lhcr proteins and may suggest an important role of Zea in the light-harvesting and photoprotection of the red algal PSI-LHCI complex.

Conversion of photosystem II dimer to monomers during photoinhibition is tightly coupled with decrease in oxygen-evolving activity in the diatom Chaetoceros gracilis

The rapid turnover of photosystem II (PSII) in diatoms is thought to be at an exceptionally high rate compared with other oxyphototrophs; however, its molecular mechanisms are largely unknown. In this study, we examined the photodamage and repair processes of PSII in the marine centric diatom Chaetoceros gracilis incubated at 30 or 300 μmol photons m^-2 s^-1 in the presence of a de novo protein-synthesis inhibitor. When de novo protein synthesis was blocked by chloramphenicol (Cm), oxygen-evolving activity gradually decreased even at 30 μmol photons m^-2 s^-1 and could not be detected at 12 h. PSII inactivation was enhanced by higher illumination. Using Cm-treated cells, the conversion of PSII dimer to monomers was observed by blue native PAGE. The rate of PSII monomerization was very similar to that of the decrease in oxygen-evolving activity under both light conditions. Immunological detection of D1 protein in the Cm-treated cells showed that the rate of D1 degradation was slower than that of the former two events, although it was more rapid than that observed in other oxyphototrophs. Thus, the three accelerated events, especially PSII monomerization, appear to cause the unusually high rate of PSII turnover in diatoms.

Purification and characterization of malate:quinone oxidoreductase from thermophilic Bacillus sp. PS3

Several bacteria possess membrane-bound dehydrogenases other than cytosolic dehydrogenases in their respiratory chains. In many cases, the membrane-bound malate:quinone oxidoreductases (MQOs) are essential for growth. However, these MQOs are absent in mammalian mitochondria, and therefore may be a potential drug target for pathogenic bacteria. To characterize the kinetic properties of MQOs, we purified MQO from Bacillus sp. PS3, which is a gram-positive and thermophilic bacterium, and cloned the gene encoding MQO based on the obtained partial N-terminus sequence. Purified MQOs showed a molecular mass of ~90 kDa, which was estimated using gel filtration, and it consists of two subunits with a molecular mass of ~50 kDa. Phylogenetic analysis showed a high similarity to the MQO of the Geobacillus group rather than the Bacillus group. Additionally, the purified enzyme was thermostable and it retained menaquinol reduction activity at high temperatures. Although it is difficult to conduct experiments using menaquinol because of its instability, we were able to measure the oxidase activity of cytochrome bd-type quinol oxidase by using menaquinol-1 by coupling this molecule with the menaquinol reduction reaction using purified MQOs.

Phycobilisome model with novel skeleton-like structures in a glaucocystophyte Cyanophora paradoxa

Phycobilisome (PBS) is a photosynthetic antenna supercomplex consisting of a central core subcomplex with several peripheral rods radiating from the core. Subunit structure of PBS was studied in a glaucocystophyte Cyanophora paradoxa strain NIES 547. Subunit composition of PBS was identified by N-terminal sequencing and genes for the subunits were determined by homology search of databases. They included rod linker proteins CpcK1 and CpcK2, rod-core linker proteins CpcG1 and CpcG2, and core linker proteins ApcC1 and ApcC2. Subfractionation by native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis provided evidence for novel subcomplexes (ApcE/CpcK1/CpcG2/ApcA/ApcB/CpcD and ApcE/CpcK2/CpcG1/ApcA/ApcB), which connect rod and core subcomplexes. These skeleton-like structures may serve as a scaffold of the whole PBS assembly. Different roles of ApcC1 and ApcC2 were also suggested. Based on these findings, structural models for PBS were proposed. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Photosynthesis Research for Sustainability: from Natural to Artificial.

Binding and functional properties of five extrinsic proteins in oxygen-evolving photosystem II from a marine centric diatom, Chaetoceros gracilis

Oxygen-evolving photosystem II (PSII) isolated from a marine centric diatom, Chaetoceros gracilis, contains a novel extrinsic protein (Psb31) in addition to four red algal type extrinsic proteins of PsbO, PsbQ', PsbV, and PsbU. In this study, the five extrinsic proteins were purified from alkaline Tris extracts of the diatom PSII by anion and cation exchange chromatographic columns at different pH values. Reconstitution experiments in various combinations with the purified extrinsic proteins showed that PsbO, PsbQ', and Psb31 rebound directly to PSII in the absence of other extrinsic proteins, indicating that these extrinsic proteins have their own binding sites in PSII intrinsic proteins. On the other hand, PsbV and PsbU scarcely rebound to PSII alone, and their effective bindings required the presence of all of the other extrinsic proteins. Interestingly, PSII reconstituted with Psb31 alone considerably restored the oxygen evolving activity in the absence of PsbO, indicating that Psb31 serves as a substitute in part for PsbO in supporting oxygen evolution. A significant difference found between PSIIs reconstituted with Psb31 and with PsbO is that the oxygen evolving activity of the former is scarcely stimulated by Cl(-) and Ca(2+) ions but that of the latter is largely stimulated by these ions, although rebinding of PsbV and PsbU activated oxygen evolution in the absence of Cl(-) and Ca(2+) ions in both the former and latter PSIIs. Based on these results, we proposed a model for the association of the five extrinsic proteins with intrinsic proteins in diatom PSII and compared it with those in PSIIs from the other organisms.

Topological analysis of the extrinsic PsbO, PsbP and PsbQ proteins in a green algal PSII complex by cross-linking with a water-soluble carbodiimide

The close association of the extrinsic PsbO, PsbP and PsbQ proteins with PSII core subunits in oxygen-evolving PSII complexes from a green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, was examined by cross-linking experiments with a water-soluble carbodiimide, 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide (EDC). The green algal PSII complexes treated with EDC were washed with alkaline Tris to remove the non-cross-linked extrinsic proteins, and then applied to Blue-Native-PAGE to prepare PSII core complexes. The extrinsic proteins cross-linked with PSII core complexes were detected by immunoblotting analysis using antibodies against extrinsic proteins and PSII core subunits. The results showed that the PsbO, PsbP and PsbQ proteins directly associated with CP47, the alpha subunit of cytochrome b559 and a small subunit in PSII core complexes, respectively, through electrostatic interactions. In addition, a cross-linked product between the PsbP and PsbQ proteins was found in alkaline Tris extracts of EDC-treated PSII complexes, and its cross-linked site was examined by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI TOF-MS) after digestions with trypsin and endoproteinase Asp-N. The results demonstrated that the positively charged amino group of K176 on the PsbP protein electrostatically interacts with the negatively charged carboxyl group of D28 on the PsbQ protein. These binding properties of the extrinsic proteins in the green algal PSII were compared with those in higher plant PSII.

The PsbK subunit is required for the stable assembly and stability of other small subunits in the PSII complex in the thermophilic cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus elongatus BP-1

PsbK is a small membrane protein of the PSII core complex and is highly conserved from cyanobacteria to plants. Here, we studied its role in the thermophilic cyanobacterium, Thermosynechococcus elongatus BP-1, by focusing on a psbK disruptant with hexahistidine-tagged CP47. The psbK disruptant showed photoautotrophic growth comparable with that of the wild type under a wide range of light conditions. The mutant PSII complex retained the oxygen-evolving activity with a unique modification of the acceptor Q(B) site. N-terminal sequencing revealed that Ycf12 and PsbZ proteins were lost in the PSII complex prepared from the mutant. Immunoblotting detected reduced accumulation of PsbZ in the mutant thylakoid. These results suggest that PsbK is required not only for association of PsbZ and Ycf12 with the isolated PSII complex but also for the stabilization of PsbZ in the thylakoid membrane.

Isolation and spectral characterization of Photosystem II reaction center from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

We isolated highly-purified photochemically active photosystem (PS) II reaction center (RC) complexes from the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 using a histidine-tag introduced to the 47 kDa chlorophyll protein, and characterized their spectroscopic properties. Purification was carried out in a one-step procedure after isolation of PS II core complex. The RC complexes consist of five polypeptides, the same as in spinach. The pigment contents per two molecules of pheophytin a were 5.8 +/- 0.3 chlorophyll (Chl) a and 1.8 +/- 0.1 beta-carotene; one cytochrome b(559) was found per 6.0 Chl a molecules. Overall absorption and fluorescence properties were very similar to those of spinach PS II RCs; our preparation retains the best properties so far isolated from cyanobacteria. However, a clear band-shift of pheophytin a and beta-carotene was observed. Reasons for these differences, and RC composition, are discussed on the basis of the three-dimensional structure of complexes.

Structures and functions of the extrinsic proteins of photosystem II from different species

This minireview presents a summary of information available on the variety and binding properties of extrinsic proteins that form the oxygen-evolving complex of photosystem II (PSII) of cyanobacteria, red alga, diatom, green alga, euglena, and higher plants. In addition, the structure and function of extrinsic PsbO, PsbV, and PsbU proteins are summarized based on the crystal structure of thermophilic cyanobacterial PSII together with biochemical and genetic studies from various organisms.

Characterization of highly purified photosystem I complexes from the chlorophyll d-dominated cyanobacterium Acaryochloris marina MBIC 11017

Photochemically active photosystem (PS) I complexes were purified from the chlorophyll (Chl) d-dominated cyanobacterium Acaryochloris marina MBIC 11017, and several of their properties were characterized. PS I complexes consist of 11 subunits, including PsaK1 and PsaK2; a new small subunit was identified and named Psa27. The new subunit might replace the function of PsaI that is absent in A. marina. The amounts of pigments per one molecule of Chl d' were 97.0 +/- 11.0 Chl d, 1.9 +/- 0.5 Chl a, 25.2 +/- 2.4 alpha-carotene, and two phylloquinone molecules. The light-induced Fourier transform infrared difference spectroscopy and light-induced difference absorption spectra reconfirmed that the primary electron donor of PS I (P740) was the Chl d dimer. In addition to P740, the difference spectrum contained an additional band at 728 nm. The redox potentials of P740 were estimated to be 439 mV by spectroelectrochemistry; this value was comparable with the potential of P700 in other cyanobacteria and higher plants. This suggests that the overall energetics of the PS I reaction were adjusted to the electron acceptor side to utilize the lower light energy gained by P740. The distribution of charge in P740 was estimated by a density functional theory calculation, and a partial localization of charge was predicted to P1 Chl (special pair Chl on PsaA). Based on differences in the protein matrix and optical properties of P740, construction of the PS I core in A. marina was discussed.

Crystal structure of cyanobacterial photosystem II at 3.0 A resolution: a closer look at the antenna system and the small membrane-intrinsic subunits

Photosystem II (PSII) is a homodimeric protein-cofactor complex embedded in the thylakoid membrane that catalyses light-driven charge separation accompanied by the water splitting reaction during oxygenic photosynthesis. In the first part of this review, we describe the current state of the crystal structure at 3.0 A resolution of cyanobacterial PSII from Thermosynechococcus elongatus [B. Loll et al., Towards complete cofactor arrangement in the 3.0 A resolution structure of photosystem II, Nature 438 (2005) 1040-1044] with emphasis on the core antenna subunits CP43 and CP47 and the small membrane-intrinsic subunits. The second part describes first the general theory of optical spectra and excitation energy transfer and how the parameters of the theory can be obtained from the structural data. Next, structure-function relationships are discussed that were identified from stationary and time-resolved experiments and simulations of optical spectra and energy transfer processes.

Absence of the PsbZ subunit prevents association of PsbK and Ycf12 with the PSII complex in the thermophilic cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus elongatus BP-1

PsbZ (Ycf9) is a membrane protein of PSII complexes and is highly conserved from cyanobacteria to plants. We deleted the psbZ gene in the thermophilic cyanobacterium, Thermosynechococcus elongatus. The mutant cells showed photoautotrophic growth indistinguishable from that of the wild type under low and standard light conditions, while they showed even better growth than the wild type under high light. The mutant accumulated less carotenoids and more phycobiliproteins than the wild type under high light, suggestive of tolerance to photoinhibition. The mutant cells evolved oxygen at a rate comparable with the wild type, while the PSII complex isolated from the mutant retained much lower activity than the wild type. N-terminal sequencing revealed that Ycf12 and PsbK proteins were almost lost in the PSII complex. These results indicate that PsbZ is involved in functional integrity of the PSII complex by stabilizing PsbK and Ycf12. We suggest that Ycf12 is an unidentified membrane-spanning polypeptide that is placed near PsbZ and PsbK in the crystal structure of PSII.

PsbI affects the stability, function, and phosphorylation patterns of photosystem II assemblies in tobacco

Photosystem II (PSII) core complexes consist of CP47, CP43, D1, D2 proteins and of several low molecular weight integral membrane polypeptides, such as the chloroplast-encoded PsbE, PsbF, and PsbI proteins. To elucidate the function of PsbI in the photosynthetic process as well as in the biogenesis of PSII in higher plants, we generated homoplastomic knock-out plants by replacing most of the tobacco psbI gene with a spectinomycin resistance cartridge. Mutant plants are photoautotrophically viable under green house conditions but sensitive to high light irradiation. Antenna proteins of PSII accumulate to normal amounts, but levels of the PSII core complex are reduced by 50%. Bioenergetic and fluorescence studies uncovered that PsbI is required for the stability but not for the assembly of dimeric PSII and supercomplexes consisting of PSII and the outer antenna (PSII-LHCII). Thermoluminescence emission bands indicate that the presence of PsbI is required for assembly of a fully functional Q(A) binding site. We show that phosphorylation of the reaction center proteins D1 and D2 is light and redox-regulated in the wild type, but phosphorylation is abolished in the mutant, presumably due to structural alterations of PSII when PsbI is deficient. Unlike wild type, phosphorylation of LHCII is strongly increased in the dark due to accumulation of reduced plastoquinone, whereas even upon state II light phosphorylation is decreased in delta psbI. These data attest that phosphorylation of D1/D2, CP43, and LHCII is regulated differently.

Distribution of the extrinsic proteins as a potential marker for the evolution of photosynthetic oxygen-evolving photosystem II

Distribution of photosystem II (PSII) extrinsic proteins was examined using antibodies raised against various extrinsic proteins from different sources. The results showed that a glaucophyte (Cyanophora paradoxa) having the most primitive plastids contained the cyanobacterial-type extrinsic proteins (PsbO, PsbV, PsbU), and the primitive red algae (Cyanidium caldarium) contained the red algal-type extrinsic proteins (PsO, PsbQ', PsbV, PsbU), whereas a prasinophyte (Pyraminonas parkeae), which is one of the most primitive green algae, contained the green algal-type ones (PsbO, PsbP, PsbQ). These suggest that the extrinsic proteins had been diverged into cyanobacterial-, red algal- and green algal-types during early phases of evolution after a primary endosymbiosis. This study also showed that a haptophyte, diatoms and brown algae, which resulted from red algal secondary endosymbiosis, contained the red algal-type, whereas Euglena gracilis resulted from green algal secondary endosymbiosis contained the green algal-type extrinsic proteins, suggesting that the red algal- and green algal-type extrinsic proteins have been retained unchanged in the different lines of organisms following the secondary endosymbiosis. Based on these immunological analyses, together with the current genome data, the evolution of photosynthetic oxygen-evolving PSII was discussed from a view of distribution of the extrinsic proteins, and a new model for the evolution of the PSII extrinsic proteins was proposed.

Purification and characterization of succinate:menaquinone oxidoreductase from Corynebacterium glutamicum

Succinate:menaquinone oxidoreductase from Corynebacterium glutamicum, a high-G+C, Gram-positive bacterium, was purified to homogeneity. The enzyme contained two heme B molecules and three polypeptides with apparent molecular masses of 67, 29 and 23 kDa, which corresponded to SdhA (flavoprotein), SdhB (iron-sulfur protein), and SdhC (membrane anchor protein), respectively. In non-denaturating polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, the enzyme migrated as a single band with an apparent molecular mass of 410 kDa, suggesting that it existed as a trimer. The succinate dehydrogenase activity assayed using 2,3-dimethoxy-5-methyl-6-decyl-1,4-benzoquinone and 2,6-dichloroindophenol as the electron acceptor was inhibited by 2-n-heptyl-4-hydroxyquinoline N-oxide (HQNO), and the Dixon plots were biphasic. In contrast, the succinate dehydrogenase activity assayed using phenazine methosulfate and 2,6-dichloroindophenol was inhibited by p-benzoquinone and not by HQNO. These findings suggested that the C. glutamicum succinate:menaquinone oxidoreductase had two quinone binding sites. In the phylogenetic tree of SdhA, Corynebacterium species do not belong to the high-G+C group, which includes Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Streptomyces coelicolor, but are rather close to the group of low-G+C, Gram-positive bacteria such as Bacillus subtilis. This situation may have arisen due to the horizontal gene transfer.

Isolation and Characterization of Oxygen-Evolving Photosystem II Complexes Retaining the PsbO, P and Q Proteins from Euglena gracilis

Oxygen-evolving photosystem II (PSII) complexes of Euglena gracilis were isolated and characterized. (1) The PSII complexes contained three extrinsic proteins of 33 kDa (PsbO), 23 kDa (PsbP) and 17 kDa (PsbQ), and showed oxygen-evolving activity of around 700 micromol O2 (mg Chl)(-1) h(-1) even in the absence of Cl- and Ca2+ ions. (2) NaCl-treatment removed not only PsbP and PsbQ but also a part of PsbO from Euglena PSII, indicating that PsbO binds to Euglena PSII more loosely than those of other organisms. Treatments by urea/NaCl, alkaline Tris or CaCl2 completely removed the three extrinsic proteins from Euglena PSII. (3) Each of the Euglena extrinsic proteins bound directly to PSII independent of the other extrinsic proteins, which is similar to the binding properties of the extrinsic proteins in a green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. (4) One of the significant features of Euglena PSII is that the oxygen evolution was not enhanced by Ca2+. When CaCl2-treated Euglena PSII was reconstituted with PsbO, the oxygen-evolving activity was stimulated by the addition of NaCl, but no further stimulation was observed by CaCl2. (5) Oxygen evolution of Euglena PSII reconstituted with PsbO from C. reinhardtii or spinach instead of that from Euglena also showed no enhancement by Ca2+, whereas a significant enhancement of oxygen evolution was observed by Ca2+ when the green algal or higher plant PSII was reconstituted with Euglena PsbO instead of their own PsbO. These results indicate that the PSII intrinsic proteins instead of the extrinsic PsbO protein, are responsible for the stimulation of oxygen evolution by Ca2+. Sequence comparison of major PSII intrinsic proteins revealed that PsbI of Euglena PSII is remarkably different from other organisms in that Euglena PsbI possesses extra 16-17 residues exposed to the luminal side. This may be related to the loss of enhancement of oxygen evolution by Ca2+ ion.