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Deploey N, Van Moortel L, Rogatsky I, Peelman F, De Bosscher K. The Biologist's Guide to the Glucocorticoid Receptor's Structure. Cells 2023; 12:1636. [PMID: 37371105 PMCID: PMC10297449 DOI: 10.3390/cells12121636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The glucocorticoid receptor α (GRα) is a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily and functions as a glucocorticoid (GC)-responsive transcription factor. GR can halt inflammation and kill off cancer cells, thus explaining the widespread use of glucocorticoids in the clinic. However, side effects and therapy resistance limit GR's therapeutic potential, emphasizing the importance of resolving all of GR's context-specific action mechanisms. Fortunately, the understanding of GR structure, conformation, and stoichiometry in the different GR-controlled biological pathways is now gradually increasing. This information will be crucial to close knowledge gaps on GR function. In this review, we focus on the various domains and mechanisms of action of GR, all from a structural perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick Deploey
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (N.D.); (L.V.M.); (F.P.)
- Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Translational Nuclear Receptor Research (TNRR) Laboratory, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Laura Van Moortel
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (N.D.); (L.V.M.); (F.P.)
- Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Translational Nuclear Receptor Research (TNRR) Laboratory, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Inez Rogatsky
- Hospital for Special Surgery Research Institute, The David Z. Rosensweig Genomics Center, New York, NY 10021, USA;
- Graduate Program in Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Frank Peelman
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (N.D.); (L.V.M.); (F.P.)
- Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Karolien De Bosscher
- VIB Center for Medical Biotechnology, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (N.D.); (L.V.M.); (F.P.)
- Department of Biomolecular Medicine, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Translational Nuclear Receptor Research (TNRR) Laboratory, VIB, 9052 Ghent, Belgium
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2
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Huang M, Inukai T, Kagami K, Abe M, Shinohara T, Watanabe A, Somazu S, Oshiro H, Goi K, Goto H, Minegishi M, Iwamoto S, Urayama KY, Sugita K. Splicing variant profiles and single nucleotide polymorphisms of the glucocorticoid receptor gene in relation to glucocorticoid sensitivity of B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Hematol Oncol 2017; 36:245-251. [PMID: 28850694 DOI: 10.1002/hon.2471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 07/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid (GC) shows antileukaemic activity via binding to the GC receptor (GR). The human GR gene has 4 splicing variants besides the functional isoform GRα, but their significance in GC sensitivity of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) has been inconsistent. Additionally, several studies evaluated the relevance of GR gene single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the GC sensitivity of ALL, but the current cumulative evidence appears inconclusive. Addressing limitations in previous studies, we used a large series of B-cell precursor ALL (BCP-ALL) cell lines established from Japanese patients to comprehensively examine all 5 splicing variants of the GR gene and candidate SNPs, and their association with GC-sensitivity. We performed real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analyses with 10 sets of primers that differentially quantify the 5 isoforms in different combinations, and the strongest correlations with GC sensitivity were observed for the real-time RT-PCR of exons 7 and 8 (prednisolone sensitivity; r = -0.534, R2 = 0.29, P = 1.4 × 10-6 ) and exons 8 and 9a (r = -0.583, R2 = 0.34, P = 7.6 × 10-8 ), both specific for GRα and GRγ isoforms. In contrast, the real-time RT-PCR of junction of exons 3g and 4 and exon 4, specific for GRγ isoform alone, did not show significant correlation with GC sensitivity (prednisolone sensitivity; r = -0.403, R2 = 0.16, P = 4.6 × 10-4 ). These observations are consistent with the notion that GRα plays a central role in the GC-mediated proapoptotic activity in BCP-ALL. In addition, a promoter region SNP genotype (rs72555796) showed a significant association with GC sensitivity (prednisolone sensitivity; P = .010) and tended to show an association with GR gene expression (RT-PCR of exons 7 and 8; P = .170). These findings indicate that isoform profiles and SNP genotypes of the GR gene may be useful indicators of GC sensitivity in BCP-ALL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meixian Huang
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
| | - Takeshi Inukai
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
| | - Keiko Kagami
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
| | - Masako Abe
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
| | - Tamao Shinohara
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
| | - Atsushi Watanabe
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
| | - Shinpei Somazu
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
| | - Hiroko Oshiro
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
| | - Kumiko Goi
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Goto
- Hematology/Oncology & Regenerative Medicine, Kanagawa Children's Medical Center, Yokohama, Japan
| | | | - Shotaro Iwamoto
- Department of Pediatrics, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
| | - Kevin Y Urayama
- Center for Clinical Epidemiology, St Luke's International University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kanji Sugita
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
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3
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Morgan DJ, Poolman TM, Williamson AJK, Wang Z, Clark NR, Ma'ayan A, Whetton AD, Brass A, Matthews LC, Ray DW. Glucocorticoid receptor isoforms direct distinct mitochondrial programs to regulate ATP production. Sci Rep 2016; 6:26419. [PMID: 27226058 PMCID: PMC4881047 DOI: 10.1038/srep26419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The glucocorticoid receptor (GR), a nuclear receptor and major drug target, has a highly conserved minor splice variant, GRγ, which differs by a single arginine within the DNA binding domain. GRγ, which comprises 10% of all GR transcripts, is constitutively expressed and tightly conserved through mammalian evolution, suggesting an important non-redundant role. However, to date no specific role for GRγ has been reported. We discovered significant differences in subcellular localisation, and nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling in response to ligand. In addition the GRγ transcriptome and protein interactome was distinct, and with a gene ontology signal for mitochondrial regulation which was confirmed using Seahorse technology. We propose that evolutionary conservation of the single additional arginine in GRγ is driven by a distinct, non-redundant functional profile, including regulation of mitochondrial function.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Morgan
- School of Computer Sciences, University of Manchester, Kilburn Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, Uk, M13 9PL.,Faculty of Medical and Human Sciences, University of Manchester, AV Hill Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, UK, M13 9PT
| | - Toryn M Poolman
- Faculty of Medical and Human Sciences, University of Manchester, AV Hill Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, UK, M13 9PT.,Manchester Centre for Nuclear Hormone Research in Disease, University of Manchester, AV Hill Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, UK, M13 9PT.,Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, University of Manchester, AV Hill Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, UK, M13 9PT
| | - Andrew J K Williamson
- Faculty of Medical and Human Sciences, University of Manchester, AV Hill Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, UK, M13 9PT.,Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, University of Manchester, AV Hill Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, UK, M13 9PT
| | - Zichen Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Therapeutics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1603, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Neil R Clark
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Therapeutics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1603, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Avi Ma'ayan
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Therapeutics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1603, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Anthony D Whetton
- Faculty of Medical and Human Sciences, University of Manchester, AV Hill Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, UK, M13 9PT.,Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, University of Manchester, AV Hill Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, UK, M13 9PT.,Stoller Biomarker Discovery Centre, University of Manchester, Wolfson Molecular Imaging Centre, Palatine Road, Manchester, UK, M20 3LJ
| | - Andrew Brass
- School of Computer Sciences, University of Manchester, Kilburn Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, Uk, M13 9PL.,Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, AV Hill Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, UK, M13 9PT
| | - Laura C Matthews
- Faculty of Medical and Human Sciences, University of Manchester, AV Hill Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, UK, M13 9PT.,Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Leeds, Wellcome Trust Brenner Building, St James's University Hospital, Leeds, UK, LS9 7TF
| | - David W Ray
- Faculty of Medical and Human Sciences, University of Manchester, AV Hill Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, UK, M13 9PT.,Manchester Centre for Nuclear Hormone Research in Disease, University of Manchester, AV Hill Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, UK, M13 9PT.,Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, University of Manchester, AV Hill Building, Oxford Road, Manchester, UK, M13 9PT
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4
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Caratti G, Matthews L, Poolman T, Kershaw S, Baxter M, Ray D. Glucocorticoid receptor function in health and disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2015; 83:441-8. [PMID: 25627931 DOI: 10.1111/cen.12728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2014] [Revised: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid hormones are essential for life in vertebrates. They act through the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), which is expressed in virtually all cells of the human body. Yet the actions of glucocorticoids (GCs) are specific to particular cell types. Broadly GCs regulate carbohydrate metabolism, inflammation, stress and cell fate. Synthetic GCs are widely used in medicine and are by far the most frequent cause of Cushing's syndrome in routine practice. The advent of novel drugs targeting the GR offers new opportunities to treat patients with immune, or malignant disease, and may also offer new opportunities to manage patients with adrenal insufficiency also. This review covers the latest understanding of how GCs work, how their actions are affected by disease, and where the new drugs may take us.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgio Caratti
- Centre for Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Laura Matthews
- Centre for Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Toryn Poolman
- Centre for Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | | | - Matthew Baxter
- Centre for Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - David Ray
- Centre for Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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5
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Abstract
Endogenous glucocorticoids regulate a variety of physiologic processes and are crucial to the systemic stress response. Glucocorticoid receptors are expressed throughout the body, but there is considerable heterogeneity in glucocorticoid sensitivity and induced biological responses across tissues. The immunoregulatory properties of glucocorticoids are exploited in the clinic for the treatment of inflammatory and autoimmune disorders as well as certain hematological malignancies, but adverse side effects hamper prolonged use. Fully understanding the molecular events that shape the physiologic effects of glucocorticoid treatment will provide insight into optimal glucocorticoid therapies, reliable assessment of glucocorticoid sensitivity in patients, and may advance the development of novel GR agonists that exert immunosuppressive effects while avoiding harmful side effects. In this review, we provide an overview of mechanisms that affect glucocorticoid specificity and sensitivity in health and disease, focusing on the distinct isoforms of the glucocorticoid receptor and their unique regulatory and functional properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek W Cain
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - John A Cidlowski
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.
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6
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Rivers C, Flynn A, Qian X, Matthews L, Lightman S, Ray D, Norman M. Characterization of conserved tandem donor sites and intronic motifs required for alternative splicing in corticosteroid receptor genes. Endocrinology 2009; 150:4958-4967. [PMID: 19819975 PMCID: PMC4455001 DOI: 10.1210/en.2009-0346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Alternative splicing events from tandem donor sites result in mRNA variants coding for additional amino acids in the DNA binding domain of both the glucocorticoid (GR) and mineralocorticoid (MR) receptors. We now show that expression of both splice variants is extensively conserved in mammalian species, providing strong evidence for their functional significance. An exception to the conservation of the MR tandem splice site (an A at position +5 of the MR+12 donor site in the mouse) was predicted to decrease U1 small nuclear RNA binding. In accord with this prediction, we were unable to detect the MR+12 variant in this species. The one exception to the conservation of the GR tandem splice site, an A at position +3 of the platypus GRgamma donor site that was predicted to enhance binding of U1 snRNA, was unexpectedly associated with decreased expression of the variant from the endogenous gene as well as a minigene. An intronic pyrimidine motif present in both GR and MR genes was found to be critical for usage of the downstream donor site, and overexpression of TIA1/TIAL1 RNA binding proteins, which are known to bind such motifs, led to a marked increase in the proportion of GRgamma and MR+12. These results provide striking evidence for conservation of a complex splicing mechanism that involves processes other than stochastic spliceosome binding and identify a mechanism that would allow regulation of variant expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Rivers
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology (C.R., A.F., X.Q., S.L., M.N.), University of Bristol, Bristol BS1 3NY, United Kingdom; and Endocrine Sciences Research Group (L.M., D.R.), University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, Manchester M13 PT, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Flynn
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology (C.R., A.F., X.Q., S.L., M.N.), University of Bristol, Bristol BS1 3NY, United Kingdom; and Endocrine Sciences Research Group (L.M., D.R.), University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, Manchester M13 PT, United Kingdom
| | - Xiaoxiao Qian
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology (C.R., A.F., X.Q., S.L., M.N.), University of Bristol, Bristol BS1 3NY, United Kingdom; and Endocrine Sciences Research Group (L.M., D.R.), University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, Manchester M13 PT, United Kingdom
| | - Laura Matthews
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology (C.R., A.F., X.Q., S.L., M.N.), University of Bristol, Bristol BS1 3NY, United Kingdom; and Endocrine Sciences Research Group (L.M., D.R.), University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, Manchester M13 PT, United Kingdom
| | - Stafford Lightman
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology (C.R., A.F., X.Q., S.L., M.N.), University of Bristol, Bristol BS1 3NY, United Kingdom; and Endocrine Sciences Research Group (L.M., D.R.), University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, Manchester M13 PT, United Kingdom
| | - David Ray
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology (C.R., A.F., X.Q., S.L., M.N.), University of Bristol, Bristol BS1 3NY, United Kingdom; and Endocrine Sciences Research Group (L.M., D.R.), University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, Manchester M13 PT, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Norman
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology (C.R., A.F., X.Q., S.L., M.N.), University of Bristol, Bristol BS1 3NY, United Kingdom; and Endocrine Sciences Research Group (L.M., D.R.), University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, Manchester M13 PT, United Kingdom
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7
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Meijsing SH, Pufall MA, So AY, Bates DL, Chen L, Yamamoto KR. DNA binding site sequence directs glucocorticoid receptor structure and activity. Science 2009; 324:407-10. [PMID: 19372434 DOI: 10.1126/science.1164265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 506] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Genes are not simply turned on or off, but instead their expression is fine-tuned to meet the needs of a cell. How genes are modulated so precisely is not well understood. The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) regulates target genes by associating with specific DNA binding sites, the sequences of which differ between genes. Traditionally, these binding sites have been viewed only as docking sites. Using structural, biochemical, and cell-based assays, we show that GR binding sequences, differing by as little as a single base pair, differentially affect GR conformation and regulatory activity. We therefore propose that DNA is a sequence-specific allosteric ligand of GR that tailors the activity of the receptor toward specific target genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastiaan H Meijsing
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
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8
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Gross KL, Lu NZ, Cidlowski JA. Molecular mechanisms regulating glucocorticoid sensitivity and resistance. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2009; 300:7-16. [PMID: 19000736 PMCID: PMC2674248 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2008.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2008] [Revised: 10/08/2008] [Accepted: 10/08/2008] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid receptor agonists are mainstays in the treatment of various malignancies of hematological origin. Glucocorticoids are included in therapeutic regimens for their ability to stimulate intracellular signal transduction cascades that culminate in alterations in the rate of transcription of genes involved in cell cycle progression and programmed cell death. Unfortunately, subpopulations of patients undergoing systemic glucocorticoid therapy for these diseases are or become insensitive to glucocorticoid-induced cell death, a phenomenon recognized as glucocorticoid resistance. Multiple factors contributing to glucocorticoid resistance have been identified. Here we summarize several of these mechanisms and describe the processes involved in generating a host of glucocorticoid receptor isoforms from one gene. The potential role of glucocorticoid receptor isoforms in determining cellular responsiveness to glucocorticoids is emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - John A. Cidlowski
- Corresponding Author. Mailing address: National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, P.O. Box 12233, MD F3-07, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, Phone: 919-541-1564. Fax: 919-541-1367. E-mail:
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9
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Mechanisms regulating the susceptibility of hematopoietic malignancies to glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis. Adv Cancer Res 2009; 101:127-248. [PMID: 19055945 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-230x(08)00406-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GCs) are commonly used in the treatment of hematopoietic malignancies owing to their ability to induce apoptosis of these cancerous cells. Whereas some types of lymphoma and leukemia respond well to this drug, others are resistant. Also, GC-resistance gradually develops upon repeated treatments ultimately leading to refractory relapsed disease. Understanding the mechanisms regulating GC-induced apoptosis is therefore uttermost important for designing novel treatment strategies that overcome GC-resistance. This review discusses updated data describing the complex regulation of the cell's susceptibility to apoptosis triggered by GCs. We address both the genomic and nongenomic effects involved in promoting the apoptotic signals as well as the resistance mechanisms opposing these signals. Eventually we address potential strategies of clinical relevance that sensitize GC-resistant lymphoma and leukemia cells to this drug. The major target is the nongenomic signal transduction machinery where the interplay between protein kinases determines the cell fate. Shifting the balance of the kinome towards a state where Glycogen synthase kinase 3alpha (GSK3alpha) is kept active, favors an apoptotic response. Accumulating data show that it is possible to therapeutically modulate GC-resistance in patients, thereby improving the response to GC therapy.
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10
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Michailidou Z, Carter RN, Marshall E, Sutherland HG, Brownstein DG, Owen E, Cockett K, Kelly V, Ramage L, Al-Dujaili EAS, Ross M, Maraki I, Newton K, Holmes MC, Seckl JR, Morton NM, Kenyon CJ, Chapman KE. Glucocorticoid receptor haploinsufficiency causes hypertension and attenuates hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and blood pressure adaptions to high-fat diet. FASEB J 2008; 22:3896-907. [PMID: 18697839 PMCID: PMC2749453 DOI: 10.1096/fj.08-111914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid hormones are critical to respond and adapt to stress. Genetic variations in the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) gene alter hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity and associate with hypertension and susceptibility to metabolic disease. Here we test the hypothesis that reduced GR density alters blood pressure and glucose and lipid homeostasis and limits adaption to obesogenic diet. Heterozygous GRβgeo/+ mice were generated from embryonic stem (ES) cells with a gene trap integration of a β-galactosidase-neomycin phosphotransferase (βgeo) cassette into the GR gene creating a transcriptionally inactive GR fusion protein. Although GRβgeo/+ mice have 50% less functional GR, they have normal lipid and glucose homeostasis due to compensatory HPA axis activation but are hypertensive due to activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). When challenged with a high-fat diet, weight gain, adiposity, and glucose intolerance were similarly increased in control and GRβgeo/+ mice, suggesting preserved control of intermediary metabolism and energy balance. However, whereas a high-fat diet caused HPA activation and increased blood pressure in control mice, these adaptions were attenuated or abolished in GRβgeo/+ mice. Thus, reduced GR density balanced by HPA activation leaves glucocorticoid functions unaffected but mineralocorticoid functions increased, causing hypertension. Importantly, reduced GR limits HPA and blood pressure adaptions to obesogenic diet.—Michailidou, Z., Carter, R. N., Marshall, E., Sutherland, H. G., Brownstein, D. G., Owen, E., Cockett, K., Kelly, V., Ramage, L., Al-Dujaili, E. A. S., Ross, M., Maraki, I., Newton, K., Holmes, M. C., Seckl, J. R., Morton, N. M., Kenyon, C. J., Chapman, K. E. Glucocorticoid receptor haploinsufficiency causes hypertension and attenuates hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and blood pressure adaptions to high-fat diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Michailidou
- Endocrinology Unit, Centre for Cardiovascular Sciences, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK
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11
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Lu NZ, Cidlowski JA. The origin and functions of multiple human glucocorticoid receptor isoforms. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004; 1024:102-23. [PMID: 15265776 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1321.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid hormones are necessary for life and are essential in all aspects of human health and disease. The actions of glucocorticoids are mediated by the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), which binds glucocorticoid hormones and regulates gene expression, cell signaling, and homeostasis. Decades of research have focused on the mechanisms of action of one isoform of GR, GRa. However, in recent years, increasing numbers of human GR (hGR) isoforms have been reported. Evidence obtained from this and other laboratories indicates that multiple hGR isoforms are generated from one single hGR gene via mutations and/or polymorphisms, transcript alternative splicing, and alternative translation initiation. Each hGR protein, in turn, is subject to a variety of posttranslational modifications, and the nature and degree of posttranslational modification affect receptor function. We summarize here the processes that generate and modify various hGR isoforms with a focus on those that impact the ability of hGR to regulate target genes. We speculate that unique receptor compositions and relative receptor proportions within a cell determine the specific response to glucocorticoids. Unchecked expression of some isoforms, for example hGRbeta, has been implicated in various diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick Z Lu
- The Laboratory of Signal Transduction, Molecular Endocrinology Group, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, 111 Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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12
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Necela BM, Cidlowski JA. A single amino acid change in the first zinc finger of the DNA binding domain of the glucocorticoid receptor regulates differential promoter selectivity. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:39279-88. [PMID: 15220338 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m405489200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian species are well known to differ in their sensitivity to glucocorticoids, but the molecular basis for this difference remains largely uncharacterized. To address this issue, the transcriptional activity of the mouse and human glucocorticoid receptor (GR) was analyzed on two model glucocorticoid-responsive promoters. Mouse GR (mGR) displayed unique promoter discrimination in response to a range of glucocorticoids, with enhanced activity on a simple glucocorticoid response element (GRE)-based promoter and diminished activity on the complex mouse mammary tumor virus promoter compared with human GR (hGR). Promoter discrimination between mGR and hGR was mapped to a single amino acid change at residue 437 (glycine to valine) of mGR and to sequence differences within individual GREs of the different promoters. Mouse GR displayed higher activation on GREs with a guanine rather than a thymine at the -6 position. Binding studies indicated mGR (mGR437V) displayed a weaker affinity for GREs containing a thymine at the -6 position than a mGR mutant containing a glycine at residue 437 (mGR437G). Despite distinct transcriptional activities, both receptors had similar affinities for response elements that contain a guanine at the -6 position. Our findings support a model by which the presence of a valine residue at position 437 of mGR induces a conformational change that leads to alterations in affinity and/or transcriptional activation in a promoter-dependent context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian M Necela
- Laboratory of Signal Transduction, NIEHS, and Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, USA
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13
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Haarman EG, Kaspers GJL, Pieters R, Rottier MMA, Veerman AJP. Glucocorticoid receptor alpha, beta and gamma expression vs in vitro glucocorticod resistance in childhood leukemia. Leukemia 2004; 18:530-7. [PMID: 14724649 DOI: 10.1038/sj.leu.2403225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Alternative splicing of the primary glucocorticoid receptor (GR) transcript, resulting in glucocorticoid receptor alpha GRalpha, glucocorticoid receptor beta GRbeta and glucocorticoid receptor gamma GRgamma, may influence glucocorticoid (GC) resistance in childhood leukemia. To test this hypothesis, we determined GRalpha/beta protein and GRalpha/beta/gamma mRNA expression levels in 43 initial acute lymphoblastic leukemia (iALL), 10 initial myeloid leukemia (iAML), 11 relapsed ALL (rALL) samples and one rAML sample. The results were correlated with in vitro GC resistance. GRalpha mRNA correlated with protein expression (rho=0.39-0.56, P<0.05), but the protein to mRNA ratio was median 2.2-fold lower in rALL than in iALL (P<0.05). GRbeta mRNA was median 137-fold lower than GRalpha mRNA and correlated with GRalpha mRNA expression (rho=0.71, P<0.0001). GRbeta could not be detected at the protein level. GRgamma accounted for a median of 2.8% (range 0.95-7.4%) of all GR transcripts. GRalpha (protein and mRNA) and GRbeta (mRNA) expressions or GRalpha/GRbeta ratios did not correlate with in vitro GC resistance in iALL, but GRgamma (mRNA) did (rho=0.52, P=0.007). These results suggest that GRbeta is not involved in GC resistance in childhood leukemia. The association between GRgamma expression and in vitro GC resistance in iALL and the decreased protein/mRNA ratio in rALL, a subgroup resistant to GCs, warrants further exploration.
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MESH Headings
- Acute Disease
- Alternative Splicing
- Bone Marrow/pathology
- Drug Resistance, Neoplasm
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic/drug effects
- Glucocorticoids/pharmacology
- Humans
- Leukemia, Myeloid/genetics
- Leukemia, Myeloid/metabolism
- Neoplasm Recurrence, Local/genetics
- Neoplasm Recurrence, Local/metabolism
- Precursor Cell Lymphoblastic Leukemia-Lymphoma/genetics
- Precursor Cell Lymphoblastic Leukemia-Lymphoma/metabolism
- Protein Isoforms
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- RNA, Neoplasm/genetics
- RNA, Neoplasm/metabolism
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/genetics
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- E G Haarman
- Department of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, VU University Medical Center, De Boelelaan, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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14
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Lethimonier C, Tujague M, Kern L, Ducouret B. Peptide insertion in the DNA-binding domain of fish glucocorticoid receptor is encoded by an additional exon and confers particular functional properties. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2002; 194:107-16. [PMID: 12242033 DOI: 10.1016/s0303-7207(02)00181-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The trout glucocorticoid receptor (rtGR) contains an additional sequence of nine amino acids located between the two zinc fingers of the DNA-binding domain (DBD) (Endocrinology 136 (1995) 3774). Polymerase chain reaction on trout genomic DNA and sequencing were performed in the DBD region, demonstrating that this peptide is encoded by an additional exon of 27 nucleotides between the two exons encoding the two zinc fingers of other nuclear receptors. This additional sequence in the rtGR confers a better binding affinity of the receptor to a single GRE, as shown by gel shift experiments with GST-DBDrtGR fusion proteins, deleted or not of the nine amino acids (Delta9). This higher affinity is correlated with a higher constitutive transcriptional activity of the receptor on a reporter gene driven by a single GRE, but not with the ligand-induced transcriptional activity. Nevertheless, on a double GRE, the wild type and rtGR-Delta9 are equally active on both constitutive or dexamethasone-induced transcriptional activity. This original DBD structure could have emerged during evolution such as to allow better regulation of glucocorticoid dependent genes in relation to the large spectrum of cortisol physiological functions in fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Lethimonier
- Endocrinologie Moléculaire de la Reproduction, UMR-CNRS 6026 Bât 13, Campus de Beaulieu, Université de Rennes 1, 35042 Rennes cedex, France
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15
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Chen F, Watson CS, Gametchu B. Multiple glucocorticoid receptor transcripts in membrane glucocorticoid receptor-enriched S-49 mouse lymphoma cells. J Cell Biochem 1999. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-4644(19990901)74:3<418::aid-jcb10>3.0.co;2-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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16
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Simons SS. Function/activity of specific amino acids in glucocorticoid receptors. VITAMINS AND HORMONES 1994; 49:49-130. [PMID: 7810076 DOI: 10.1016/s0083-6729(08)61146-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- S S Simons
- Steroid Hormones Section/LMCB, NIDDK, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
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