Acute necrotizing esophagitis: another case

Acute esophageal necrosis after cellulitis in an obese patient with diabetes mellitus

A 59-year-old obese Japanese man with poorly controlled type 2 diabetes mellitus presented with severe heartburn for 3 days after inguinal cellulitis and exacerbated glycemic control, without any signs of upper gastrointestinal bleeding. The patient had a high plasma glucose level (34.0 mmol/L) and was dehydrated. Emergent esophagogastroduodenoscopy showed black discoloration predominantly affecting the lower esophagus; thus, acute esophageal necrosis (AEN) was diagnosed. This black discoloration was not present on esophagogastroduodenoscopy 20 days prior to presentation, and disappeared 6 days after conservative treatment. To conclude, acute esophageal necrosis should be considered if a patient in marked hyperglycemic status presents with unendurable heartburn, even when upper gastrointestinal bleeding is not observed or recent esophagogastroduodenoscopy was unremarkable.

[Necrotizing esophagitis by stress-cardiomyopathy with right ventricular insufficiency]

Acute necrotizing esophagitis ("black esophagus") is defined as complete necrosis of the esophageal mucosa, which typically affects the entire circumference. We report a case of a healthy 62-year-old woman, who became hemodynamically unstable due to stress cardiomyopathy with acute right heart failure. Transfusion-dependent anemia occurred 24 h later and an upper gastrointestinal endoscopy revealed a black discoloured mucosa of the distal esophagus. After hemodynamic stabilization and treatment with proton pump inhibitors and sucralfate, complete healing of the esophageal mucosa was achieved.

Esophageal infarction

Esophageal infarction or acute necrotizing esophagitis is a rare condition that has a dramatic endoscopic appearance of a "black esophagus." The esophageal involvement can vary from the distal third to the total esophagus. Excluding corrosive injury and other well-known rare causes of black esophagus, the etiology of this condition is unknown. Ischemia due to hypoperfusion state is thought to play a central role in the pathogenesis. The treatment is supportive with acid suppression and gastrointestinal rest. Mortality is high due to comorbid conditions.

Black esophagus: Acute esophageal necrosis syndrome

Acute esophageal necrosis (AEN), commonly referred to as “black esophagus”, is a rare clinical entity arising from a combination of ischemic insult seen in hemodynamic compromise and low-flow states, corrosive injury from gastric contents in the setting of esophago-gastroparesis and gastric outlet obstruction, and decreased function of mucosal barrier systems and reparative mechanisms present in malnourished and debilitated physical states. AEN may arise in the setting of multiorgan dysfunction, hypoperfusion, vasculopathy, sepsis, diabetic ketoacidosis, alcohol intoxication, gastric volvulus, traumatic transection of the thoracic aorta, thromboembolic phenomena, and malignancy. Clinical presentation is remarkable for upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Notable symptoms may include epigastric/abdominal pain, vomiting, dysphagia, fever, nausea, and syncope. Associated laboratory findings may reflect anemia and leukocytosis. The hallmark of this syndrome is the development of diffuse circumferential black mucosal discoloration in the distal esophagus that may extend proximally to involve variable length of the organ. Classic “black esophagus” abruptly stops at the gastroesophageal junction. Biopsy is recommended but not required for the diagnosis. Histologically, necrotic debris, absence of viable squamous epithelium, and necrosis of esophageal mucosa, with possible involvement of submucosa and muscularis propria, are present. Classification of the disease spectrum is best described by a staging system. Treatment is directed at correcting coexisting clinical conditions, restoring hemodynamic stability, nil-per-os restriction, supportive red blood cell transfusion, and intravenous acid suppression with proton pump inhibitors. Complications include perforation with mediastinal infection/abscess, esophageal stricture and stenosis, superinfection, and death. A high mortality of 32% seen in the setting of AEN syndrome is usually related to the underlying medical co-morbidities and diseases.

Acute esophageal necrosis: a rare syndrome

BACKGROUND

Acute esophageal necrosis, which presents as a black esophagus on endoscopy, is a rare disorder that is poorly described in the medical literature. In this study, we analyze all cases reported to date to define risk factors, clinical presentation, endoscopic features, histologic appearance, treatment, complications, outcome and etiopathogenesis of the disease and to describe a distinct medical syndrome and propose a staging system.

METHODS

We searched Medline and PubMed from January 1965 to February 2006 for English-language articles using the key words "acute esophageal necrosis," "necrotizing esophagitis," and "black esophagus."

RESULTS

A total of 88 patients were reported in the literature during the 40 years, 70 men and 16 women with an average age of 67 years. Patients were generally admitted for gastrointestinal bleeding and cardiovascular event/shock. Patients presented with hematemesis and melena in more than 70% of the cases. Upper endoscopy showed black, diffusely necrotic esophageal mucosa predominantly affecting the distal third of the organ. Necrosis was confirmed histologically in most cases. Complications included strictures or stenoses, mediastinitis/abscesses, and perforations. Overall mortality was 31.8%.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides a structured approach to identifying risk factors, diagnosis, and pathogenesis of the acute esophageal necrosis. Risk factors include age, male sex, cardiovascular disease, hemodynamic compromise, gastric outlet obstruction, alcohol ingestion, malnutrition, diabetes, renal insufficiency, hypoxemia, hypercoagulable state, and trauma. Mechanism of damage is usually multifactorial secondary to ischemic compromise, acute gastric outlet obstruction, and malnutrition. Overall, acute esophageal necrosis should be viewed as a poor prognostic factor, associated with high mortality from the underlying clinical disease.

Black esophagus: report of six cases and review of the literature, 1963-2003

Black esophagus is the uncommon endoscopic finding of extensive black discoloration of the esophageal mucosa, usually from acute esophageal necrosis. Six cases of black esophagus were seen at Mayo Clinic (Rochester, Minnesota, USA) from 1997 through 2003, and 46 cases were reported in the English-language literature from 1963 through 2003. We studied the demographics, clinical features, and outcomes of these 52 cases of black esophagus. Age and sex were known for 50 patients: the mean (SD) age was 65 years (19), and 42 patients (84%) were men. Symptoms were known for 51 patients: the most common symptom was upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding, occurring in 40 patients (78%). All 52 patients had at least one comorbid condition (with most having two or more), including duodenal ulcer in 17 (33%), cancer in 15 (29%), renal insufficiency in 15 (29%), and diabetes mellitus in 14 (28%). The suspected cause of black esophagus was reported for 40 patients: ischemia in 22 (55%); massive gastroesophageal reflux in seven (18%); and esophageal infection (Lactobacillus acidophilus, herpes simplex, Candida albicans) in four (10%). Most patients received supportive therapy, particularly acid suppression therapy. Of the 47 patients for whom outcomes were known, 17 (36%) died. There were no statistically significant differences between survivors and non-survivors. Black esophagus typically occurs in older men with at least one comorbid condition; a substantial number of patients die. Although the underlying mechanism leading to black esophagus is unknown, clinicians caring for patients with black esophagus should focus on optimizing perfusion, minimizing acid reflux, and treating esophageal infection if present.

Pseudomembranous esophagitis

BACKGROUND

Little is known of pseudomembranous esophagitis, a condition of striking endoscopic appearance. Presented here is a description of its nature and outcome.

METHOD

Information on all patients with upper GI disease seen in our unit are held in a computerized database that includes presentation, diagnosis (including pseudomembranous esophagitis), treatment, and outcome.

RESULTS

Forty-eight patients (mean age 70 years) with pseudomembranous esophagitis were seen over 15 years; 42 were in-patients with various illnesses. At endoscopy, a thin, concentric membrane and/or thick slough covered the distal half and occasionally the entire esophagus. This layer, yellow or blackened, could be peeled away to reveal underlying friable esophageal submucosa. The membrane was composed of fibrinous exudate and inflammatory cells; there was no basement membrane, hence the term pseudomembrane. Patients were treated with histamine H2 receptor antagonists or proton pump inhibitors for about 3 months and followed by endoscopy or clinical observation. All became asymptomatic; the pseudomembrane had disappeared in 32 who underwent follow-up endoscopy. It recurred in 3 of 38 being followed (mean 3.2 years), again associated with another illness requiring hospitalization. The long-term outcome was poor, determined by age and general condition and independent of pseudomembranous esophagitis. Seven patients died within 3 months and 17 during follow-up (mean 42 months, range 5-140 months).

CONCLUSION

Pseudomembranous esophagitis is an unusual condition of unknown cause, probably under-reported and associated with systemic illness. It heals rapidly and recurrence is uncommon.